Background-A potential mechanism for left ventricular (LV) remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI) is activation of the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). This study examined the effects of MMP inhibition (MMPi) on regional LV geometry and MMP levels after MI. Methods and Results-In pigs instrumented with radiopaque markers to measure regional myocardial geometry, MI was created by ligating the obtuse marginals of the circumflex artery. In the first study, pigs were randomized to MMPi (nϭ7; PD166793, 20 mg · kg Ϫ1 · d Ϫ1 ) or MI only (nϭ7) at 5 days after MI, and measurements were performed at 2 weeks. Regional MI areas were equivalent at randomization and were increased in the MI-only group at 2 weeks after MI compared with the MMPi group. In the second study, pigs randomized to MMPi (nϭ9) or MI only (nϭ8) were serially followed up for 8 weeks. At 8 weeks after MI, LV end-diastolic dimension was lower with MMPi than in the MI-only group (4.7Ϯ0.1 versus 5.1Ϯ0.1 cm, PϽ0.05). Regional MI area was reduced with MMPi at 8 weeks after MI (1.3Ϯ0.1 versus 1.7Ϯ0.1 cm 2 , PϽ0.05). MMPi reduced ex vivo MMP proteolytic activity. In the MI region, membrane-type MMP levels were normalized and levels of the endogenous tissue inhibitor of MMPs (TIMP-1) were increased compared with normal levels with MMPi. These effects were not observed in the MI-only group. Conclusions-MMPi

Background-A cause-and-effect relationship exists between matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) induction and left ventricular (LV) remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI). Whether broad-spectrum MMP inhibition is necessary and the timing at which MMP inhibition should be instituted after MI remain unclear. This study examined the effects of MMP-1 and MMP-7-sparing inhibition (sMMPi) on regional and global LV remodeling when instituted before or after MI. Methods and Results-Pigs instrumented with coronary snares and radiopaque markers within the area at risk were randomized to MI only (nϭ11) or sMMPi (PGE-530742, 10 mg/kg PO TID) begun 3 days before MI (nϭ11) or 3 days after MI (nϭ10). Eleven weight-matched noninstrumented pigs served as reference controls. At 10 days after MI, infarct size was similar between groups (47Ϯ3% of the area at risk

Background-Whether

Aortic valve stenosis is a common cause of left ventricular pressure overload, a pathologic process that elicits myocyte hypertrophy and alterations in extracellular matrix composition, both of which contribute to increases in left ventricular stiffness. However, clinical and animal studies suggest that increased myocardial extracellular matrix fibrillar collagen content occurs later in the time course of left ventricular pressure overload at a time coincident with severe abnormalities in diastolic function followed by the development of symptomatic heart failure. Aortic valve replacement remains the most effective treatment for elimination of chronic pressure overload secondary to aortic stenosis but has traditionally been recommended only after the onset of clinical symptoms. However, long-term follow-up of symptomatic aortic stenosis patients after aortic valve replacement suggests that valve replacement may not result in complete reversal of the maladaptive changes that occur within the myocardial extracellular matrix secondary to the pressure overload state. Quite the contrary, residual left ventricular extracellular matrix abnormalities such as these are likely responsible for persistent abnormalities in diastolic function and increased morbidity and mortality after aortic valve replacement. Thus, defining the mechanisms and pathways responsible for regulating the myocardial extracellular matrix during the natural history of aortic stenosis may provide a means by which to detect crucial structural milestones and thereby permit more precise identification of the development of maladaptive left ventricular remodeling.

Background Patients with severe left ventricular (LV) pressure overload (LVPO) secondary to aortic stenosis can present with signs and symptoms of heart failure despite normal LV ejection fractions (LVEF). This process occurs, at least in part, as a result of LVPO-induced extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling which promulgates increased LV stiffness and impaired diastolic function. However, the determinants which drive ECM remodeling in this form of LVPO remain to be fully defined. Methods LVPO was induced in mature pigs (n=15) by progressive ascending aortic cuff inflation (once/week/4 weeks) whereby LV mass, LVEF, and regional myocardial stiffness (rKm) were compared to referent controls (n=12). Determinants of ECM remodeling were assessed by measuring levels of mRNA expression for fibrillar collagens, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and the tissue inhibitors of MMP-1 and -4 (TIMP-1, -4). Results With LVPO, LV mass and rKm increased by 2- and 3-fold, respectively, compared to control, with no change in LVEF. LV myocardial collagen increased approximately 2-fold which was accompanied by reduced solubility (i.e. increased cross-linking) with LVPO, but mRNA expression for fibrillar collagen and MMPs remained relatively unchanged. In contrast, a robust increase in mRNA expression for TIMP-1 and -4 occurred with LVPO. Conclusions In a progressive model of LVPO, which recapitulates the phenotype of aortic stenosis, increased ECM accumulation and subsequently increased myocardial stiffness was not due to increased fibrillar collagen expression, but rather due to determinants of post-translational control which included increased collagen stability (thereby resistant to MMP degradation) and increased endogenous MMP inhibition. Targeting these ECM post-translational events with LVPO may hold both diagnostic and therapeutic relevance.

Background-The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) contribute to regional remodeling after prolonged periods of ischemia and reperfusion (I/R), but specific MMP types activated during this process remain poorly understood. A novel class, the membrane-type MMPs (MT-MMPs), has been identified in the myocardium, but activity of these MMP types has not been assessed in vivo, particularly during I/R. Methods and Results-Pigs (30 kg, nϭ8) were instrumented with microdialysis catheters to measure MT1-MMP activity in both ischemic and nonischemic (remote) myocardium. A validated MT1-MMP fluorogenic substrate was infused through the microdialysis system, and changes in fluorescence were reflective of MT1-MMP activity at steady state, during ischemia (90 minutes), and during reperfusion (120 minutes). At peak ischemia, MT1-MMP activity was increased by Ͼ40% in the ischemic region, with no change in the remote region, which persisted with reperfusion (PϽ0.05). After I/R, MT1-MMP abundance was increased by Ͼ50% (PϽ0.05). Differential centrifugation revealed that the endosomal fraction (which contains subcellular organelles) within the ischemic myocardium was associated with a Ͼ135% increase in MT1-MMP (PϽ0.05). Furthermore, in an isolated left ventricular myocyte model of I/R, hypoxia (simulated ischemia) induced a Ͼ70% increase in MT1-MMP abundance in myocytes, and confocal microscopy revealed MT1-MMP internalization during this time period and reemergence to the membrane with reperfusion. Conclusions-These unique results demonstrate that a specific MMP type, MT1-MMP, is increased in abundance and activity with I/R and is likely attributed, at least in part, to changes in intracellular trafficking.

Matrix metalloproteinase inhibition reduced postinfarction left ventricular dilation, reduced regional myocardial wall stress, and modified myocardial material properties. These unique findings suggest that increased myocardial matrix metalloproteinase activation after infarction contributes directly to the left ventricular remodeling process.

Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a clinical syndrome in which pathophysiologic underpinnings include left ventricular (LV) dysfunction, remodeling, and increased neurohormonal activation. Accordingly, large animal constructs must be developed that mimic this disease process in order to define new pharmacologic and surgical treatment strategies. Multiple large animal species have been used for these purposes. For instance, canine coronary artery microembolization has been used to generate ischemia-induced LV dilation and dysfunction. Sheep have been subjected to total acute coronary artery occlusion to evaluate ischemia-induced mitral valve insufficiency. Rapid ventricular pacing has been used in both dogs and pigs to reproduce the characteristics of dilated cardiomyopathy. Each model is associated with advantages and disadvantages. Therefore findings derived from the study of large animal models of LV failure must be carefully evaluated. With proper interpretation, important insights into the pathogenesis of CHF may be realized. Furthermore, these models may be used in conjunction with imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging, single photon emission computed tomography, and positron emission tomography to elucidate the identification of cellular and extracellular alterations associated with LV failure. Thus large animal models of CHF are critical components in the effort to translate basic observations into beneficial clinical applications.