The actor–partner interdependence model (APIM) is a model of dyadic relationships that integrates a conceptual view of interdependence with the appropriate statistical techniques for measuring and testing it. In this article we present the APIM as a general, longitudinal model for measuring bidirectional effects in interpersonal relationships. We also present three different approaches to testing the model. The statistical analysis of the APIM is illustrated using longitudinal data on relationship specific attachment security from 203 mother–adolescent dyads. The results support the view that interpersonal influence on attachment security is bidirectional. Moreover, consistent with a hypothesis from attachment theory, the degree to which a child’s attachment security is influenced by his or her primary caregiver is found to diminish with age.

This article discusses the conceptual meaning of partner effects, which occur when one person is affected by the behavior or characteristics of his or her partner. We show that partner effects can be used to validate the presence of a relationship and can elaborate the particular nature of that relationship. We discuss possible moderation of partner effects and show that many theoretical variables in relationship research (e.g., similarity) can be viewed as the interactions of partner effects with other variables. We present three extended examples that illustrate the importance of partner effects.

Attachment theory (J. Bowlby, 1969) is not just about how internalized models of relationships affect interpersonal outcomes; it is primarily a theory about how interpersonal processes affect social and cognitive development. This study tested 3 hypotheses about the interpersonal sources of adult attachment security: (a) attachment security is relationship specific, (b) characteristics of partners affect attachment security, and (c) security of attachment is reciprocated. Measures of attachment security were obtained from 2 parents and 2 children (adolescent or older) in 208 middle-class families. Results of social relations model analysis (D. A. Kenny & L. La Voie, 1984) supported all 3 hypotheses. The author concludes that internal working models of relationships may not be so "internal" after all and that greater emphasis on the interpersonal sources of adult attachment security is warranted.

Many scholars are skeptical of family member reports on their interpersonal relationships. Familial reports are assumed to be biased by social desirability as well as other factors. In this study, a latent variables modeling approach was employed to evaluate rater reliability and bias in mother, father, and child ratings of parent-child negativity. Results based on 78 clinical families demonstrate that family member ratings contain a significant "true score" component that correlates with observer ratings of parental behavior. The presence of systematic rater effects is also demonstrated. The latent variables approach, which provides statistical control for rater effects, is recommended for the analysis of this type of data.

Ideas about the association between family interaction patterns and mental health have inspired a great deal of research on family relationships. Conventional statistical models (e.g., analysis of variance), however, are not suited for the analysis of the nonindependent observations produced by family systems; yet, these sources of nonindependence (e.g., reciprocity, partner effects) are very interesting to many family researchers. This article demonstrates how structural equation modeling enables the study of family processes in a way that is consistent with a systems perspective. An analysis of perceived coerciveness in 2-parent, 2-child families illustrates the method.

The Social Relations Model (SRM) allows for examination of family relations on three different levels: the individual level (actor and partner effects), the dyadic level (relationship effects), and the family level (family effect). The aim of this study was to present a systematic review of SRM family studies and identify general patterns in the results. Results of reanalyses of 17 data sets showed that characteristics of the person who reports on the relationship and the unique characteristics of the relationship were most important explanations of differences in family relationships. The present systematic review contributes to a better understanding of who is driving relationship outcomes in families and provides suggestions concerning the application of the SRM to family data.A large body of research showed that aspects of the parent-child relationship, sibling relationship, and marital relationship are all related to the development of child adjustment problems (

Is parental control of a child's behavior due to the parenting style of the parent (e.g., authoritative parenting), the child's inclination toward compliance (i.e., an "easy" child), or the reciprocal system of parent-child exchange? This study addressed this question, as well as the broader one of who drives the interaction whenever one family member influences another. Family members from 208 two-parent two-child families of adolescents rated the degree to which each person in the family influenced each of the other family members. Social relations analysis of these data indicated that characteristics of the partner and the unique actor-partner "fit" were systematic sources of interpersonal influence, and that reciprocal influence was present in most--but not all--family dyads. A pattern in which parents compensate for each other's influenceability was also found. It is recommended that these findings be replicated using observational data that have been sequentially analyzed.

Social relations model analysis was used to clarify family dynamics associated with parental affective style, an index of parent-to-child behavior associated with severe psychopathology in the child. Results from 70 families who had sought clinical services for an adolescent family member (39 girls and 31 boys) suggest (a) that adolescents elicit the negative parental affective style that puts them at risk and (b) that elicitation of negative parental affect is strongly tied to adolescents' expression of negative affect toward their parents (i.e., a reciprocity effect). The findings support the views that children contribute to their own risk of psychopathology and that parent-child behavior ought to be interpreted in the broader context of the family system.