Gene therapy to correct defective genes requires efficient gene delivery and long-term gene expression. The available vector systems have not allowed the simultaneous achievement of both goals. We have developed a chimeric viral vector system that incorporates favorable aspects of both adenoviral and retroviral vectors. Adenoviral vectors induce target cells to function as transient retroviral producer cells in vivo. The progeny retroviral vector particles are then able to stably transduce neighboring cells. In this system, the nonintegrative adenoviral vector is rendered functionally integrative via the intermediate generation of a retroviral producer cell. The chimeric vectors may allow realization of the requisite goals for specific gene-therapy applications.

A major impediment to the successful treatment of estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha)-positive breast cancer is the development of antiestrogen resistance. Tamoxifen, the most commonly used antiestrogen, exerts its pharmacological action by binding to ERalpha and blocking the growth-promoting action of estrogen-bound ERalpha in breast cancer cells. Tamoxifen treatment primarily induces cytostasis (growth arrest) and the surviving breast cancer cells commonly acquire tamoxifen resistance. Numerous clinically-relevant mechanisms of acquired antiestrogen resistance have been identified by in vitro studies. Our recent studies (Mol Cancer Ther 2008; 7:2977-87) now demonstrate that autophagy (also referred to as macroautophagy) is critical to the development of antiestrogen resistance. Under conditions of compromised autophagy, including treatments with pharmacological inhibitors and RNAi targeting of the beclin 1 gene, the cytotoxicity (death-inducing effects) of the antiestrogen 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-OHT) was significantly increased. 4-OHT is an active metabolite of tamoxifen commonly used for in vitro studies. A step-wise drug selection protocol, using 4-OHT as the selecting drug, established antiestrogen-resistant breast cancer cell lines. Analysis of a representative resistant cell line showed an increased ability of the cells to sustain high levels of antiestrogen-induced autophagy without progression to death. Importantly, blockade of autophagosome function in the 4-OHT-treated, antiestrogen-resistant cells induced a robust death response. These data provide strong evidence that autophagy is a key mechanism of cell survival during antiestrogen challenge and progression to antiestrogen resistance. We discuss the potential benefit of blocking autophagosome function to significantly reduce the emergence of antiestrogen-resistant breast cancer cells.

In recent studies, we and others showed that autophagy is critical to estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancer cell survival and the development of antiestrogen resistance. Consequently, new approaches are warranted for targeting autophagy in breast cancer cells undergoing antiestrogen therapy. Because crosstalk has been demonstrated between the autophagy- and proteasome-mediated pathways of protein degradation, this study investigated how the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib affects autophagy and cell survival in antiestrogen-treated ER+ breast cancer cells. Bortezomib, at clinically achievable doses, induced a robust death response in ER+, antiestrogen-sensitive and antiestrogen-resistant breast cancer cells undergoing hormonal therapy. Cleavage of PARP and lamin A was detectable as a read-out of cell death, following bortezomib-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. Prior to induction of cell death, bortezomib-treated cells showed high levels of light chain 3 (LC3) and p62, two protein markers for autophagy. The accumulation of these proteins was due to bortezomib-mediated blockade of long-lived protein turnover during macroautophagy. This novel action of bortezomib was linked to its blockade of cathepsin-L activity, which is required for autolysosomal-mediated protein turnover in ER+ breast cancer cells. Further, bortezomib-treated breast cancer cells showed induction of the unfolded protein response, with upregulation of CH OP and GRP78. Bortezomib also induced high levels of the pro-apoptotic protein BNIP3. Knockdown of CH OP and/or BNIP3 expression via RNAi targeting significantly attenuated the death-promoting effects of bortezomib. Thus, bortezomib inhibits prosurvival autophagy, in addition to its known function in blocking the proteasome, and is cytotoxic to hormonally treated ER+ breast cancer cells. These findings indicate that combining a proteasome inhibitor like bortezomib with antiestrogen therapy may have therapeutic advantage in the management of early-stage breast cancer.

Gene therapy to correct defective genes requires efficient gene delivery and long-term gene expression. Realization of both goals with available vector systems has so far not been achieved. As a novel approach to solve this problem, we have developed a chimeric viral vector system that exploits favorable aspects of both adenoviral and retroviral vectors. In this schema, adenoviral vectors induce target cells to function as transient retroviral producer cells in vivo. The progeny retroviral vector particles can then effectively achieve stable transduction of neighboring cells. In this system, the nonintegrative adenoviral vector is rendered functionally integrative via the intermediate generation of an induced retroviral producer cell. Such chimeric vectors may now allow realization of the requisite goals for specific gene therapy applications.

Introduction In this pre-clinical in vitro study conducted in estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancer cells, we have characterized the effects of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-1) on the cytostatic and cytotoxic action of antiestrogen treatment when used as a single agent or in combination with the antiprogestin mifepristone (MIF). Our goal was to identify new molecular targets to improve the efficacy of hormonal therapy in breast cancer patients that have a poor response to hormonal therapy, in part, due to high circulating levels of unbound insulinIGF-1. Methods IGF-1-mediated effects on cytostasis and apoptotic cell death were determined with cell counts conducted in the presence and absence of trypan blue; enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to determine the intracellular levels of cleaved cytokeratin 18, a marker of epithelial cancer cell apoptosis; and immunoblot analysis to determine the levels of cleaved poly-ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) and lamin A that result from caspase-dependent apoptosis. Cytotoxicity was further characterized by determination of the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the percent of mitochondrial membrane depolarization in cell populations treated with the different hormones in the presence and absence of IGF-1. Small molecule inhibitors of the dual-specificity protein kinase MEK1, MEK1 siRNA, Bim siRNA, and vectors overexpressing MEK1 wild type and mutant, dominant negative cDNA were used to identify key IGF-1 downstream prosurvival effectors. Results IGF-1, at physiologically relevant levels, blocked the cytotoxic action(s) of the antiestrogens 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-OHT) and tamoxifen (TAM) when used as single agents or in combination with the antiprogestin MIF. The antiapoptotic action of IGF-1 was mediated primarily through the action of MEK1. MEK1 expression reduced the levels of ROS and mitochondrial membrane depolarization induced by the hormonal treatments via a mechanism that involved the phosphorylation and proteasomal turnover of the proapoptotic BH3-only Bcl-2 family member Bim. Importantly, small-molecule inhibitors of MEK1 circumvented the prosurvival action of IGF-1 by restoring Bim to levels that more effectively mediated apoptosis in ER + breast cancer cells. Conclusion his study provides strong support for the use of MEK1 inhibitors in combination with hormonal therapy to effectively affect cytostasis and activate a Bim-dependent apoptotic pathway in ER + breast cancer cells. We discuss that MEK1 blockade may be a particularly effective treatment for women with high circulating levels of IGF-1, which have been correlated to a poor prognosis.

BACKGROUND Dolastatin 10 is an anticancer peptide isolated from the sea hare, Dolabela auricularia, which is currently in phase I trials. METHODS The effects of dolastatin 10 on the DU‐145 human prostate cancer cell line were studied both in tissue culture and in athymic nude mice. In tissue culture, after dolastatin 10 treatment, cell cycle kinetics were measured using propidum iodide, apoptosis was estimated using the TUNEL assay, and tubulin architecture studied by direct immunofluorescence. RESULTS At concentrations of 1 nM (IC50 = 0.5 nM), dolastatin 10 completely inhibited the growth in tissue culture of human prostate cancer DU‐145 cells. Growth inhibition was correlated with the arrest of these cells in G2/M and α‐tubulin depolymerization. In athymic mice at a dose of 5 μg every 4 days i.p., dolastatin 10 blocked the diaphragmatic invasion of DU‐145 tumor cells. CONCLUSIONS Dolastatin 10 is a novel marine‐derived compound with activity in the treatment of human prostate cancer in animals. The mechanism of action of this agent involves tubulin depolymerization but not the induction of apoptosis. Prostate 34:175–181, 1998. © 1998 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

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