Homologous recombination enables the cell to access and copy intact DNA sequence information in , particularly to repair DNA damage affecting both strands of the double helix. Here, we discuss the DNA transactions and enzymatic activities required for this elegantly orchestrated process in the context of the repair of DNA double-strand breaks in somatic cells. This includes homology search, DNA strand invasion, repair DNA synthesis, and restoration of intact chromosomes. Aspects of DNA topology affecting individual steps are highlighted. Overall, recombination is a dynamic pathway with multiple metastable and reversible intermediates designed to achieve DNA repair with high fidelity.

Summary The displacement loop (D-loop) is the product of homology search and DNA strand invasion, constituting a central intermediate in homologous recombination (HR). In eukaryotes, Rad51 recombinase is assisted in D-loop formation by the Rad54 motor protein. Curiously, Rad54 also disrupts D-loops. How these opposing activities are coordinated toward productive recombination is unknown. Moreover, a seemingly disparate function Rad54 is removal of Rad51 from heteroduplex DNA (hDNA) to allow HR-associated DNA synthesis. Here, we uncover novel features of D-loop formation/dissociation dynamics, employing Rad51 filaments formed on ssDNAs that mimic physiological length and structure of in vivo substrates. The Rad54 motor is activated by Rad51 bound to synapsed DNAs and guided by a newly discovered single-stranded DNA binding domain. We present a unified model where Rad54 acts as an hDNA pump, which drives D-loop formation while simultaneously removing Rad51 from hDNA, consolidating both ATP-dependent activities of Rad54 into a single mechanistic step.

SUMMARY Inaccurate repair of broken chromosomes generates structural variants that can fuel evolution and inflict pathology. We describe a novel rearrangement mechanism in which translocation between intact chromosomes is induced by a lesion on a third chromosome. This multi-invasion-induced rearrangement (MIR) stems from a homologous recombination byproduct, where a broken DNA end simultaneously invades two intact donors. No homology is required between the donors, and the intervening sequence from the invading molecule is inserted at the translocation site. MIR is stimulated by increasing homology length and spatial proximity of the donors, and depends on the overlapping activities of the structure-selective endonucleases Mus81-Mms4, Slx1-Slx4, and Yen1. Conversely, the 3′-flap nuclease Rad1-Rad10 and enzymes known to disrupt recombination intermediates (Sgs1-Top3-Rmi1, Srs2 and Mph1) inhibit MIR. Resolution of MIR intermediates propagates secondary chromosome breaks that frequently cause additional rearrangements. MIR features have implications for the formation of simple and complex rearrangements underlying human pathologies.

SUMMARY Never-in-mitosis A-related kinase 1 (Nek1) has established roles in apoptosis and cell cycle regulation. We show that human Nek1 regulates homologous recombination (HR) by phosphorylating Rad54 at Ser572 in late G2 phase. Nek1 deficiency as well as expression of unphosphorylatable Rad54 (Rad54-S572A) cause unresolved Rad51 foci and confer a defect in HR. Phosphomimic Rad54 (Rad54-S572E), in contrast, promotes HR and rescues the HR defect associated with Nek1 loss. Although expression of phosphomimic Rad54 is beneficial for HR, it causes Rad51 removal from chromatin and degradation of stalled replication forks in S phase. Thus, G2-specific phosphorylation of Rad54 by Nek1 promotes Rad51 chromatin removal during HR in G2 phase, and its absence in S phase is required for replication fork stability. In summary, Nek1 regulates Rad51 removal to orchestrate HR and replication fork stability.

Highlights d Development of a physical assay for D-loop detection in cells d Srs2, Mph1, and Sgs1-Top3-Rmi1 (STR) regulate D-loop levels in vivo d Two distinct pathways (Srs2 and Mph1, STR) target different D-loop species d Rdh54 delineates the two D-loop reversal pathways

The RAD54 family DNA translocases have several biochemical activities. One activity, demonstrated previously for the budding yeast translocases, is ATPase-dependent disruption of RAD51-dsDNA binding. This activity is thought to promote dissociation of RAD51 from heteroduplex DNA following strand exchange during homologous recombination. In addition, previous experiments in budding yeast have shown that the same activity of Rad54 removes Rad51 from undamaged sites on chromosomes; mutants lacking Rad54 accumulate nonrepair-associated complexes that can block growth and lead to chromosome loss. Here, we show that human RAD54 also promotes the dissociation of RAD51 from dsDNA and not ssDNA. We also show that translocase depletion in tumor cell lines leads to the accumulation of RAD51 on chromosomes, forming complexes that are not associated with markers of DNA damage. We further show that combined depletion of RAD54L and RAD54B and/or artificial induction of RAD51 overexpression blocks replication and promotes chromosome segregation defects. These results support a model in which RAD54L and RAD54B counteract genome-destabilizing effects of direct binding of RAD51 to dsDNA in human tumor cells. Thus, in addition to having genome-stabilizing DNA repair activity, human RAD51 has genome-destabilizing activity when expressed at high levels, as is the case in many human tumors.

The formation of crossovers is a fundamental genetic process. The XPF-family endonuclease Mus81-Mms4 (Eme1) contributes significantly to crossing over in eukaryotes. A key question is whether Mus81-Mms4 can process Holliday junctions that contain four uninterrupted strands. Holliday junction cleavage requires the coordination of two active sites, necessitating the assembly of two Mus81-Mms4 heterodimers. Contrary to this expectation, we show that Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mus81-Mms4 exists as a single heterodimer both in solution and when bound to DNA substrates in vitro. Consistently, immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrate that Mus81-Mms4 does not multimerize in vivo. Moreover, chromatin-bound Mus81-Mms4 does not detectably form higher-order multimers. We show that Cdc5 kinase activates Mus81-Mms4 nuclease activity on 3= flaps and Holliday junctions in vitro but that activation does not induce a preference for Holliday junctions and does not induce multimerization of the Mus81-Mms4 heterodimer. These data support a model in which Mus81-Mms4 cleaves nicked recombination intermediates such as displacement loops (D-loops), nicked Holliday junctions, or 3= flaps but not intact Holliday junctions with four uninterrupted strands. We infer that Mus81-dependent crossing over occurs in a noncanonical manner that does not involve the coordinated cleavage of classic Holliday junctions. Robin Holliday first proposed a mechanism for crossover formation (29). Based on fungal tetrad data, he envisioned that nick-induced heteroduplex formation could result in a DNA intermediate composed of four intact strands after ligation of the strand interruptions. This intermediate was later termed the Holliday junction (HJ). Cleavage across the two alternative planes of this junction would result in crossover (CO) or noncrossover (NCO) products, depending on the orientation of cleavage. Biochemical analysis of the bacterial RuvC nuclease supports this model and provides a paradigm for a class of enzymes called Holliday junction resolvases. These nucleases form homodimeric complexes to deliver two coordinated and symmetric endonucleolytic cuts that generate DNA ends that can be directly ligated to form recombinant products (reviewed in reference 38). However, RuvC is not evolutionarily conserved in eukaryotes, and the specific mechanisms of crossover formation in eukaryotes are still undefined. Refinement and expansion of the original Holliday model have produced the current model of double-strand break repair, in which one subpathway is defined by the formation of a double Holliday junction (dHJ) (46). Physical analysis has demonstrated the existence of dHJs in meiotic and mitotic recombination (12, 48). However, these studies could not establish whether these junctions were truly dHJs, i.e., with each individual junction having four uninterrupted strands, or were nicked junctions in a dHJ population where each strand could be found to be full length (for more discussion, see reference 49). Hence, the importance of Holliday junctions...

Synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA) is the preferred mode of homologous recombination in somatic cells leading to an obligatory non-crossover outcome, thus avoiding the potential for chromosomal rearrangements and loss of heterozygosity. Genetic analysis identified the Srs2 helicase as a prime candidate to promote SDSA. Here, we demonstrate that Srs2 disrupts D-loops in an ATP-dependent fashion and with a distinct polarity. Specifically, we partly reconstitute the SDSA pathway using Rad51, Rad54, RPA, RFC, DNA Polymerase d with different forms of PCNA. Consistent with genetic data showing the requirement for SUMO and PCNA binding for the SDSA role of Srs2, Srs2 displays a slight but significant preference to disrupt extending D-loops over unextended D-loops when SUMOylated PCNA is present, compared to unmodified PCNA or monoubiquitinated PCNA. Our data establish a biochemical mechanism for the role of Srs2 in crossover suppression by promoting SDSA through disruption of extended D-loops.