The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 150 studies in which the risk-taking tendencies of male and female participants were compared. Studies were coded with respect to type of task (e.g., self-reported behaviors vs. observed behaviors), task content (e.g., smoking vs. sex), and 5 age levels. Results showed that the average effects for 14 out of 16 types of risk taking were significantly larger than 0 (indicating greater risk taking in male participants) and that nearly half of the effects were greater than .20. However, certain topics (e.g., intellectual risk taking and physical skills) produced larger gender differences than others (e.g., smoking). In addition, the authors found that (a) there were significant shifts in the size of the gender gap between successive age levels, and (b) the gender gap seems to be growing smaller over time. The discussion focuses on the meaning of the results for theories of risk taking and the need for additional studies to clarify age trends.Risk taking is an important form of human behavior that has been the subject of numerous investigations, scholarly analyses, and policy debates (Byrnes, 1998;Slovic, Lichtenstein, & Fischhoff, 1988). To a large extent, most researchers point to the association between risky behaviors (e.g., unprotected sex) and serious health problems (e.g., sexually transmitted diseases) when they provide reasons for studying the former (e.g., DiClemente, Hansen, & Ponton, 1995). However, others have also argued that risk taking should be studied because of its relevance to three important issues in the field of psychology: the adaptiveness of human behavior (Byrnes, 1998;Payne, Bettman, & Johnson, 1993), the rationality of human thought (Baron, 1994), and the relative importance of genes versus the environment in determining the phenotypic expression of traits (Wilson & Daly, 1985;Zuckerman, 1991). In essence, then, researchers have examined risk taking for a variety of reasons. Correspondingly, the literature on risk taking is both vast and diverse.In the present article, we review that portion of the literature that is concerned with gender differences. From a scientific standpoint, gender differences are of interest because they can often precipitate important theoretical advances in a particular area of inquiry (Halpern, 1992). For example, the existence of gender differences on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) prompted many researchers to search for possible causes of this difference. One of the most important outcomes of this line of work was the finding that much of the variance in SAT scores can be explained by course work and math knowledge (e.g., Byrnes & Takahira, 1993). We hoped to precipitate similar advances in the field of risk taking.Our review is organized as follows. In the first section of this article, we discuss issues related to the definition and assessment of risk taking to provide an interpretive context for the rest of the

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An important tenet of attachment theory is that classification of security or insecurity as derived from the Strange Situation reflects the quality of an infant's relationship with its caregiver. One piece of evidence supporting this claim is the lack of concordance of classification between an infant and its mother and father. We performed a meta-analysis of the 11 studies that have examined the concordance of mother/father attachment to an infant. We found that security of attachment to one parent was dependent upon security to the other parent, that type of insecurity (avoidant/resistant) to one parent was dependent upon type of insecurity to the other, and that subcategory classification within the secure category (B1B2/B3B4) to one parent was dependent upon subcategory classification to the other. These data raise important questions regarding the meaning of infant attachment classification as derived from the Strange Situation. Among the possible explanations for the pattern of data are existence of concordant parenting styles and/or influence of infant temperament (possibly the tendency to cry upon separation) on classification of security/insecurity in the Strange Situation.

An important tenet of attachment theory is that classification of security or insecurity as derived from the Strange Situation reflects the quality of an infant's relationship with its caregiver. One piece of evidence supporting this claim is the lack of concordance of classification between an infant and its mother and father. We performed a meta-analysis of the 11 studies that have examined the concordance of mother/father attachment to an infant. We found that security of attachment to one parent was dependent upon security to the other parent, that type of insecurity (avoidant/resistant) to one parent was dependent upon type of insecurity to the other, and that subcategory classification within the secure category (B1B2/B3B4) to one parent was dependent upon subcategory classification to the other. These data raise important questions regarding the meaning of infant attachment classification as derived from the Strange Situation. Among the possible explanations for the pattern of data are existence of concordant parenting styles and/or influence of infant temperament (possibly the tendency to cry upon separation) on classification of security/insecurity in the Strange Situation.

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This study evaluated the effectiveness of a model of writing instruction that integrated word processing, strategy instruction, and a process approach. Teachers established a social context for writing in which students worked on meaningful tasks, shared their writing with peers, and published their work for real audiences. The classroom structure supported extended cycles of planning, drafting, and revising. Teachers supported the development of writing strategies through conferencing and explicit instruction in strategies for planning and revising. Word processing supported fluent production of text, revising, and publishing. The experimental model was implemented for a full school year in 12 classes with 113 students with learning disabilities. Students in the experimental classes made greater gains in the quality of their narrative and informative writing than 94 students with learning disabilities in 10 control classes.

Using evidence from a national survey and earlier literature, Schafer and Lissitz note that the time spent by teachers in assessment activities is not reflected in their evaluation skills nor in their prep aration programs. Prospective teachers receive limited preparation in assess ment procedures despite the existence of well-developed recommendations from professional groups vis-a-vis as sessment objectives for preprofessional training. The authors suggest that cur ricular change be evidenced in teacher preparation programs to ensure that teachers have adequate assessment skills.

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