Neuronal pigments of melanic type were identified in the putamen, cortex, cerebellum, and other major regions of human brain. These pigments consist of granules 30 nm in size, contained in organelles together with lipid droplets, and they accumulate in aging, reaching concentrations as high as 1.5-2.6 g/mg tissue in major brain regions. These pigments, which we term neuromelanins, contain melanic, lipid, and peptide components. The melanic component is aromatic in structure, contains a stable free radical, and is synthesized from the precursor molecule cysteinyl-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine. This contrasts with neuromelanin of the substantia nigra, where the melanic precursor is cysteinyl-dopamine. These neuronal pigments have some structural similarities to the melanin found in skin. The precursors of lipid components of the neuromelanins are the polyunsaturated lipids present in the surrounding organelles. The synthesis of neuromelanins in the various regions of the human brain is an important protective process because the melanic component is generated through the removal of reactive/toxic quinones that would otherwise cause neurotoxicity. Furthermore, the resulting melanic component serves an additional protective role through its ability to chelate and accumulate metals, including environmentally toxic metals such as mercury and lead.lipids ͉ neuromelanin ͉ brain aging ͉ neurodegenerative

Neuromelanin (NM) isolated from the substantia nigra region of the human brain was studied by scanning probe and photoelectron emission microscopies. Atomic force microscopy reveals that NM granules are comprised of spherical structures with a diameter of Ϸ30 nm, similar to that observed for Sepia cuttlefish, bovine eye, and human eye and hair melanosomes. Photoelectron microscopy images were collected at specific wavelengths of UV light between 248 and 413 nm, using the spontaneous-emission output from the Duke OK-4 free electron laser. Analysis of the data establishes a threshold photoionization potential for NM of 4.5 ؎ 0.2 eV, which corresponds to an oxidation potential of ؊0.1 ؎ 0.2 V vs. the normal hydrogen electrode (NHE). The oxidation potential of NM is within experimental error of the oxidation potential measured for human eumelanosomes (؊0.2 ؎ 0.2 V vs. NHE), despite the presence of a significant fraction of the red pigment, pheomelanin, which is characterized by a higher oxidation potential (؉0.5 ؎ 0.2 V vs. NHE). Published kinetic studies on the early chemical steps of melanogenesis show that in the case of pigments containing a mixture of pheomelanin and eumelanin, of which NM is an example, pheomelanin formation occurs first with eumelanin formation predominantly occurring only after cysteine levels are depleted. Such a kinetic model would predict a structural motif with pheomelanin at the core and eumelanin at the surface, which is consistent with the measured surface oxidation potential of the Ϸ30-nm constituents of NM granules.free electron laser ͉ oxidative stress ͉ photoelectron imaging ͉ substantia nigra ͉ Parkinson's disease

The amyloid beta (A beta) peptide of Alzheimer's disease binds copper(II), and the peptide-bound metal may be a source of reactive oxygen species and neurotoxicity. To circumvent peptide aggregation and reduce redox activity, there is growing interest in using metal chelates as drug therapeutics for AD, whose design requires accurate data on the affinity of A beta peptides for copper(II). Reports on Cu2+ binding to A beta range from approximately 10(5) to approximately 10(9); these values' being obtained for different peptide lengths (1-16, 1-28, 1-40, 1-42) at varying pH. Herein, we report that Cu2+'s binding to A beta(1-40) at 37 degrees C occurs in a 1:1 stoichiometry with a pH-dependent binding constant: 1.1 (+/-0.2) x 10 (9) M (-1) and 2.4 (+/-0.2) x 10 (9) M(-1) at pH 7.2 and 7.4, respectively. Under identical conditions, A beta(1-16) reveals a comparable binding constant, confirming that this portion of the peptide is the binding region. Several previously reported values can be reconciled with the current measurement by careful consideration of thermodynamics associated with the presence of competing ligands used to solubilize copper.

SUMMARY There is no consensus on the coordinating ligands for Cu2+ by A β. Yet the differences in peptide sequence between human and rat have been hypothesized to alter metal ion binding in a manner that alters Cu2+-induced aggregation of A β. Herein, we employ isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), circular dichroism (CD) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy to examine the Cu2+ coordination spheres to human and rat A β and an extensive set of A β(16) mutants. EPR of the mutant peptides is consistent with a 3N1O binding geometry, like the native human peptide at pH 7.4. The thermodynamic data reveal an equilibrium between three coordination spheres, {NH2, O-, NIm His6, amide N−}, {NH2, O-, NIm His6, NIm His13} and {NH2, O-, NIm His6, NIm His14} for human A β(16) but only one for rat A β(16), { NH2, O-, NIm His6, N−}, at pH 7.4 -6.5. ITC and CD data establish that the mutation R5G is sufficient for reproducing this difference in Cu2+ binding properties at pH 7.4. The substitution of bulky and positively charged Arg by Gly is proposed to stabilize the coordination {NH2, O-, NIm His6, amide N−} that then results in one dominating coordination sphere for the case of the rat peptide. The differences in the coordination geometries for Cu2+ by the human and rat A β are proposed to contribute to the variation in the ability of Cu2+ to induce aggregation of A β peptides.