occurred to a greater degree as the durations between the start-box and goal-box tone became more similar also must be rejected since the duration of the goal-box tone varied (1.8-8.7 sec.). The two remaining explanations which are consonant with the present results are the traditional motivational concepts of frustration and secondary reinforcement. The effects of frustration are observed when blocking a response or withholding a reward in the presence of cues previously associated with reinforcement. On the other hand, the procedure typically used to demonstrate the effectiveness of a secondary reinforccr is to present the conditioned stimulus without primary reward and carefully examine the responses made during extinction. Thus, operationally these two concepts are virtually identical. The antecedent conditions for the occurrence of frustration arc precisely the same as those necessary for demonstrating a secondary reinforccr. One of the appealing aspects of Atkinson and Birch's (1969) theory, which the data in the present study clearly support, is that no theoretical distinction is made between these two redundant concepts, which, up to the present, have had their own literature and explanatory burden in learning theory. REFERENCES AIKUNSON, J., & BIRCH, D. Change of activity: A new focus for theories in motivation. In T, Mischel (Ed.), Human action: Conceptual and empirical issues. New York. Academic Press, 1969. ESTES, W. K. Discriminative conditioning: II. Effects of a Pavlovian conditioned stimulus upon a subsequently established operant response.
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