This paper reviews written feedback from an information-processing perspective. The first section discusses the question of feedback as a reinforcer, and describes the feedback paradigm used as a conceptual guide for the following sections. In the second section we evaluate research on the form and content o f feedback. In the last section, a model is developed that applies concepts from servocontrol theory to the feedback sequence. Finally, we report three experiments which support the major predictions of the control model.KEY WORDS: feedback; instruction; learning; cognition. I N T R O D U C T I O NThis paper is about postresponse feedback and how it works to promote learning from written instruction. We are concerned primarily with treating feedback as a unit of information. Hence, the bulk of our discussion is framed in terms familiar to those who study information processing and its cognitive manifestations. We try to overlap as little as possible with previous reviews covering the older literature, or dealing with specific topics such as the timing of feedback presentations (e.g., Kulhavy, 1977;Kulik and Kulik, 1988).There are three objectives we hope to accomplish in this review. First, we briefly discuss the "feedback as reinforcement" position, and introduce the standard paradigm for feedback research that we use as a conceptual guide for the remainder of the paper. The next step is to evaluate studies qnstructional Science Research Facility, Payne HaI1-FPE 0611, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-0611. 2To whom all correspondence should be addressed. 280Kulhavy and Stock which have treated feedback within the context of information processing, and look closely at explanations stressing the informational value of the feedback itself. In this second section we also provide a classification of feedback formats into categories that should be useful for directing future research.The final sections of the paper are concerned with developing and testing a model of how feedback interacts with the learner's knowledge state to produce changes in criterion performance. We use the term "model" in the same sense as Anderson (1983), to reflect the way that a particular theory is applied to a specific problem domain. In the current case, we use concepts from the theory of servocontrol to construct a model of the standard feedback paradigm, and to generate and test various predictions concerning the accuracy of the model. REINFORCEMENT AND THE FEEDBACK PARADIGMOur thinking about instructional feedback has matured considerably over the past 20 years. In the late 1960s, the dominant position on feedback held that the postresponse information itself acted as a type of "reinforcer," functioning to increase the probability of a correct response occurring at some later point in time. This strong position developed from the association of feedback and operant psychology through the medium of the teaching machine (cf., Skinner, 1968). There were, of course, those who questioned the wisdom of treating the writing ...

A meta-analysis was conducted of the health/subjective well-being relationship, based upon studies of United States adults published prior to 1980. Dependent variables were zero-order and first-order correlations. A total of 231 zero-order effect size estimates were extracted from 104 different sources, while a total of 189 first-order effect sizes were extracted from thirty-three different sources. The majority of effect sizes were derived from samples where the midpoint of the age range was sixty-five and over. The 95 percent confidence interval estimates, generated using Tukey's jackknife procedure, were .29 to .35 and .29 to .38 for the zero-order and first-order correlations, respectively. Using weighted regression procedures, univariate analyses indicated that all but one study and sample characteristics were significant (p less than .05) predictors of zero-order and first-order correlations, though none of the predictors adequately specified variation in effect sizes. The mean value of the first-order correlations varied with the type of control variable, ranging from .42 (age) to .27 (SES composite). Health and subjective well-being were found to be positively and significantly related. Limitations of the meta-analysis were noted and suggestions were made for strengthening research on this topic.

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Meta-analytic techniques were used to synthesize findings from the extant empirical literature on gender and social class as predictors of subjective well-being among U.S. adults. Based upon Rubin's (1979) research, we tested a family of hypotheses that gender, relative to social class, accounted for more variation in subjective well-being. Examination of zero-order and first-order effect sizes revealed that men have slightly higher subjective well-being than women and that, while gender is a statistically significant predictor of subjective well-being, it accounts for little variance. Three measures of social class, composite socioeconomic status, occupational status, and income also are significantly related to subjective well-being on the zero-order level; but that relation is reduced when gender is used as a covariate. Overall, across the studies we synthesized, gender does not transcend social class as a major determinant of subjective well-being.

Meta-analytic techniques were used to synthesize findings on the social activity/subjective well-being relation. We chose zero-order and first order associations as our dependent variables and several different measure, sample, and study quality characteristics as our independent variables. We found that social activity is positively and significantly related to subjective well-being. Contrary to activity theory, informal activities and activities with friends were not related to subjective well-being consistently more strongly than were formal activities and activities with neighbors. In addition, the remaining measure, sample, and study quality characteristics were not adequate predictors of variation in activity/subjective well-being associations.

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The Aurora-A kinase gene is frequently amplified and/or over-expressed in a variety of human cancers, leading to major efforts to develop therapeutic agents targeting this pathway. Here we demonstrate that Aurora-A is targeted for ubiquitination and subsequent degradation by the F-box protein FBXW7 in a process that is regulated by GSK3β. Using a series of truncated Aurora-A proteins and site directed mutagenesis, we identified distinct FBXW7 and GSK3β binding sites in Aurora-A. Mutation of critical residues in either site substantially disrupts degradation of Aurora-A. Furthermore, we show that loss of Pten results in the stabilization of Aurora-A by attenuating FBXW7-dependent degradation of Aurora-A through the AKT/GSK3β pathway. Moreover, radiation-induced tumor latency is significantly shortened in Fbxw7+/− Pten+/− mice as compared to either Fbxw7+/− or Pten+/− mice, indicating that Fbxw7 and Pten appear to cooperate in suppressing tumorigenesis. Our results establish a novel posttranslational regulatory network in which the Pten and Fbxw7 pathways appear to converge on the regulation of Aurora-A level.

Interest in the subjective well-being of the elderly was kindled by social gerontologists'efforts to test theories of successful aging and to improve the quality of life of older people. Although a large body of studies have been amassed, critics have commented that this literature is contradictory and noncumulative. We review research on correlates and components of subjective well-being among the elderly. Drawing on quantitative and narrative reviews, we find that associations between indicators of subjective well-being and variables often correlated with them are generally weak. Our synthesis offactor analytic investigations among the elderly reveals that scales have more than one factor, and positive affect, negative affect, and cognition are components of subjective well-being. Implications are noted for understanding the relation between the objective environment and subjective well-being, program evaluation, and enhancing subjective well-being.