Yoked pairs of experimentally naive pigeons were exposed to a modified autoshaping procedure in which key pecking by the leader birds postponed both keylight termination and access to grain for the leader and the follower bird. Key pecking developed and was maintained in all birds and continued through two reversals of roles in the yoked procedure. Although temporal control developed more slowly in follower birds, asymptotic temporal distributions of key pecking were similar for all birds in both leader and follower roles; maximum responding occurred soon after keylight onset and decreased to a minimum prior to reinforcement. Response distributions for both leader and follower birds were described by Killeen's (1975) mathematical model of temporal control. Follower birds received response-independent reinforcement, and the development by these birds of temporal distributions which are minimal immediately prior to reinforcement is without precedent in Pavlovian appetitive conditioning. However, maintenance of key pecking by the leader birds, whose responses postponed both stimulus-change and food reinforcement, supports an interpretation of autoshaped and automaintained key pecking as responding elicited by signaled grain presentation.
20 male hooded rats, pretrained to nose-poke at a high rate for food, were given passive avoidance training to criterion at one of 2 body weights, and then assessed under the pretraining arrangements. Rate of responding at 7 0 % body weight was higher during passive avoidance and during assessment showed stronger passive avoidance than the 90% group. Data support a dual-component or 'conflict' formulation of phobic behavior.Behaviorists appear to be unable to agree upon an empirically based definition of phobic behavior (Costello, 1970;Wolpe, 1971; Powell & Lumia, 1971;Costello, 1971). One view seems to be thac phobic behavior is equivalent to avoidance behavior (e.g., Wolpe, 1971), while others hold these to be dissimilar (Costello, 1970). In particular, rhe quarrel seems to be over whether phobic behavior requires, by definition, two distinct conflicting elements: avoidance behavior and approach conringe~zcies (Hayes, 1976;Miller, 1959;Costello, 1971), or if mere avoidance behavior can be considered indicative of a phobia associated with the avoided object or situation.The avoidance and dual-component ("conflict") formulations of phobic behavior lead to differing predictions regarding the assessment of the strength of phobic behavior. This is an important issue in both the clinic and the experimental laboratory (Hayes, 1976). An avoidance formulation would seem to hold the strength of a phobia to be equivalent simply to the degree of avoidance behavior emitted. A dual-component formulation indicates thac the strength of phobic behavior is a function of both the degree of avoidance behavior and the level of approach contingencies. The present study examines these different predictions with animal subjects. METHODTwenty male, hooded rats from the West Virginia University colony served as subjects. The rats, approximately 130 days old, ranged in free-feeding weight from 320 to 540 gm. and were individually housed.The test chamber was an aluminum and Plexiglas enclosure ( 2 8 cm wide. 23 cm deep. and 18 cm high), with a grid floor of steel rods spaced 1.25 cm apart. In one end of the chamber there was a 5.5-cm diameter aperture with the bottom edge of the 'Requests for reprints should be sent to
In this contribution, the authors define and discuss the educational boundary in analytic training, which they believe is an often neglected and useful concept in psychoanalytic education. The framework on which their discussion rests includes the recent attention of psychoanalysts to issues of boundaries and ethics. Their understanding of how clinical work affects the mind of the analyst educator, as well as the ways the personalities of various analysts affect their dealings with faculty peers and students, are the other cornerstones of their discussion. The authors contend that many of the institutional problems encountered in the training of analysts can be better understood when viewed through the prism of the educational boundary. They present examples which illustrate several of the ways psychoanalytic educators complicate the training experience of candidates, offer specific explanations as to why analysts struggle as they try to manage their educational interventions, and indicate in a discussion of potential remedies that those behaviors might be avoided if the educational boundary is in focus. They also provide an example of how the educational boundary can be more effectively managed.
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