'take' is 30-100%. The establishment of reliable and reproducible animal models remains an ongoing challenge. We review different kinds of mouse models of orthotopic bladder cancer used in urothelial cancer studies, the methods of implantation, and the reported rate of tumour take. Significant progress has been made recently in noninvasive small animal-imaging in tumour models. It is now possible for researchers to investigate the effects of studied agents by monitoring of in vivo tumour growth directly and noninvasively, as well as measuring a wide range of tumour-related variables in small animals. We summarize the recent development in small-animal imaging for tumour detection and quantification.

Tumor necrosis factor (cachectin), a protein produced by monocytes and macrophages, has been implicated as an important mediator of the lethal effects of endotoxic shock and the cachexia of chronic infection. Recombinant human tumor necrosis factor a (rTNF) was given intravenously to patients as part of an antineoplastic trial. Fever, tachycardia, and at higher doses, hypotension occurred after a single inection of rTNF. Metabolic effects after rTNF administration were dose related and included enhanced energy expenditure with elevated CO2 production, increased whole body protein metabolism and peripheral amino acid efflux from the forearm, and decreased total arterial amino acid levels associated with a significant increase in plasma cortisol. Elevated serum triglycerides, as well as increased glycerol and free fatty acid turnover were seen, suggesting increased whole body lipolysis and fat utilization after rTNF. These findings indicate that administration of TNF in man reproduces many of the acute physiologic and metabolic responses to tissue injury, including energy substrate mobilization.

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