Abstract. Rheumatoid arthritis is the most common autoimmune disease that affects the joints. The cause of the disease is unknown, many studies proposed hypothesis about the etiology of rheumatoid arthritis. The clinical manifestations of arthritis are different in each patients. In addition, the development of the medication is still continue to achieve the most effective role with less side effect. Nanoparticles may be the answer to this problem, since they have been widely used to improve the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics of rheumatoid arthritis drugs. Using nanoparticles-tagged folate or PEG to deliver rheumatoid arthritis drugs may increase the specificity of the drugs to the target and consequently, may decrease the side effects of the drugs. The purpose of this review is to summarize the etiology, clinical manifestation and highlighting the use of nanoparticles in rheumatoid arthritis treatment.

Abstract.The immune system is a combination of cells, molecules, and tissues that play a role in preventing, detecting and eliminating a pathogen that enters the body. Indonesian society, hereditary and traditionally used medicinal plants (herbs) to increase immunity or immune system that fight the bacterias and pathogens. This paper aims to review the potential plants for immunomodulator from Borneo Island and the prospect to be developed as nanomedicines. The review is made using online and offline literature. Based on the literature, the immune system can be improved by various compounds from plants such as bawang dayak (Eleutherine palmifolia (L) Merr), kelakai (Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.f) Bedd), pasak bumi (Eurycoma longifolia Jack), kasturi (Mangifera casturi Kosterm.), binjai (Mangifera caesia), ramania (Bouea macrophylla Griff), gerunggang (Cratoxylum arborescens (Vahl) Bl) and akar kuning (Fibraurea chloroleuca Miers). In general, the mechanism of the plants to improve the immune system is by facing the cause of the disease directly as an effector and also work by regulating immunity. The medicinal plants also have prospects to be developed as nanomedicines.

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Objective: This study aims to optimize the timolol maleate (TM) nanoparticle prepared by ionic gelation method using the factors of pectin (PC), calcium chloride (CC), and chitosan (CS) concentrations with the responses of entrapment efficiency, particle size, and polydispersity index using 23 factorial design. Methods: TM nanoparticle suspensions were obtained by mixing of PC (0,4-0,6% (w/v)), CC (0,2-0,4% (w/v)), and CS (0,01-0,02% (w/v)) with TM concentration of 0,02% w/v. Each mixture was then tested for entrapment efficiency, particle size, and polydispersity index. The test results were analyzed with 23 factorial design using Design-Expert software in order to determine the optimum formula. Results: The optimization study showed that all of the factors influenced the responses significantly (p<0.05) based on the analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the suggested models. The R2value and the adequate precision value of the three models were more than 0.7 and 4, respectively. The difference between Adjusted R-Squared and Predicted R-Squared value were less than 0.200. The optimum condition of TM nanoparticle was suggested at the desirability value of 0.839 with the concentration of PC, CC, and CS of 0,4% (w/v), 0,2% (w/v), and 0,01% (w/v), respectively. The entrapment efficiency, particle size, and polydispersity index of the optimum condition were 24.791±2.84%, 274.867±14.45 nm, and 0.634±0.066, respectively. Conclusion: The 23factorial design has been proved as the suitable method to determine the optimum condition that yields the good results of the entrapment efficiency, particle size, and polydispersity index of the TM-loaded nanoparticle prepared by ionic gelation method.

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