As nanoparticles (NPs) are cleared via phagocytes of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS), we hypothesized that the function of circulating monocytes and dendritic cells (MO/DC) in blood can predict NP clearance (CL). We measured MO/DC phagocytosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in mice, rats, dogs, and patients with refractory solid tumors. Pharmacokinetic studies of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-encapsulated liposomal doxorubicin (PEGylated liposomal doxirubicin [PLD]), CKD-602 (S-CKD602), and cisplatin (SPI-077) were performed at the maximum tolerated dose. MO/DC function was also evaluated in patients with recurrent epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) administered PLD. Across species, a positive association was observed between cell function and CL of PEGylated liposomes. In patients with EOC, associations were observed between PLD CL and phagocytosis (R 2 5 0.43, P 5 0.04) and ROS production (R 2 5 0.61, P 5 0.008) in blood MO/DC. These findings suggest that probes of MPS function may help predict PEGylated liposome CL across species and PLD CL in patients with EOC.

Major advances in the field of carrier-mediated agents (CMAs) have revolutionized drug delivery capabilities over the past decade. While providing numerous advantages over their small-molecule counterparts (solubility,duration of exposure, and delivery to the site of action are higher), these agents display substantial variability in systemic clearance (CL) and distribution, tumor delivery, and pharmacologic effects. This review provides an overview of factors that affect the pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) of CMAs in preclinical models and patients.

Purpose A meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the inter-patient pharmacokinetic (PK) variability of liposomal and small molecule (SM) anticancer agents. Methods Inter-patient PK variability of 9 liposomal and SM formulations of the same drug were evaluated. PK variability was measured as coefficient of variance (CV%) of area under the plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC) and the fold-difference between AUCmax and AUCmin (AUC range). Results CV% of AUC and AUC ranges were 2.7-fold (P<0.001) and 16.7-fold (P=0.13) greater, respectively, for liposomal compared with SM drugs. There was an inverse linear relationship between the clearance (CL) of liposomal agents and PK variability with a lower CL associated with greater PK variability (R2 = 0.39). PK variability of liposomal agents was greater when evaluated from 0–336 h compared with 0–24 h. Conclusion PK variability of liposomes is significantly greater than SM. The factors associated with the PK variability of liposomal agents needs to be evaluated.

Purpose: Nanoparticles or carrier-mediated agents have been designed to prolong drug circulation time, increase tumor delivery, and improve therapeutic index compared to their small-molecule counterparts. The starting dose for phase I studies of small molecules and nanoparticles anticancer agents is based on the toxicity profile of the most sensitive species (e.g., rat or canine), but the optimal animal model for these studies of nanoparticles is unclear. The objective of this study was to evaluate the design, progression, and outcomes of phase I studies of nanoparticles compared with small-molecule anticancer agents.Experimental design: In preclinical studies, the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) in rats and dogs was evaluated for nanoparticles and their respective small molecules. In phase I clinical trials in patients with advanced solid tumors, the basis for starting dose, the number of dose escalations, number of patients enrolled, and the ratio of MTD to starting dose was determined for nanoparticles and small molecules.Results: The mean ratio of MTD to starting dose in clinical phase I studies was significantly greater for nanoparticles (13.9 AE 10.8) compared with small molecules (2.1 AE 1.1; P ¼ 0.005). The number of dose levels in a clinical phase I study was also significantly greater for nanoparticles (7.3 AE 2.9) compared with small molecules (4.1 AE 1.5; P ¼ 0.008).Conclusions: The degree of dose escalation from starting dose to MTD was significantly greater for nanoparticles as compared with small-molecule anticancer drugs. These findings necessitate the need to identify the most appropriate preclinical animal model to use when evaluating nanoparticles toxicity.

TSC is a phenotypic probe for PLD pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics and may be used to individualize PLD therapy in ovarian cancer and for other nanoparticles in development.