PPARγ has emerged as a master regulator of macrophage polarization and is the molecular target of the thiazolidinedione drugs. Here we show that apigenin binds and activates PPARγ by acting as a modulator. Activation of PPARγ by apigenin blocks p65 translocation into nuclei through inhibition of p65/PPARγ complex translocation into nuclei, thereby decreasing NF-κB activation and favoringM2 macrophage polarization. In HFD and ob/ob mice, apigenin significantly reverses M1 macrophage into M2 and reduces the infiltration of inflammatory cells in liver and adipose tissues, as well as decreases the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thereby alleviating inflammation. Strikingly, apigenin reduces liver and muscular steatosis, decreases the levels of ALT, AST, TC and TG, improving glucose resistance obviously. Unlike rosiglitazone, apigenin does not cause significant weight gain, osteoporosis et al. Our findings identify apigenin as a modulator of PPARγ and a potential lead compound for treatment of metabolic disorders.

No abstract

General recommendations are made (e.g. Gomes, 1977; Dzuik, 1970) that, in order to achieve maximum conception rate and litter size, sows should be mated or inseminated 9 to 15 hours prior to ovulation and that this coincides with an interval of 30 to 36 hours after the start of standing oestrus (SO). This assumes that sows will be in standing oestrus for around 48 hours. Surprisingly little data is available on the length of SO In modern sows on current production systems. Accordingly length of SO was determined in a large commercial herd weaning at around 3 weeks of age.A team of observers determined the start, completion and duration of SO in 101 multi parity sows. The sows were tested for SO daily from weaning at 8 hourly intervals (00.00, 08.00 and 16.00 hr) until the end of SO by taking sows individually from their small post-weaning groups to an oestrus checking area. Boars were penned around this area and SO was checked using the back pressure test.