Auditory brainstem encoding is influenced by experiencedependent factors such as language and music. Tone language speakers exhibit more robust brainstem encoding of lexical tones than non-tone language speakers. Studies suggest that the effects of experience with a tone language generalize to the brainstem encoding of lexical tones from other tone languages. However, the effects of learning two tone languages, with different tonal systems, on brainstem encoding of lexical pitch are unknown. In the current study, we investigated whether or not the experience with two tone languages (Mandarin and Cantonese) enhances the brainstem encoding of lexical pitch, using frequency following response (FFR). Mandarin has four lexical tones-high level, rising, dipping, and falling while Cantonese has a richer tone system with three level tones (high, mid, low), two rising tones (high and low), and one falling tone. We compared speakers fluent in Cantonese vs. those fluent in both Cantonese and Mandarin on their brainstem encoding of Cantonese and Mandarin lexical tones. We found that the Cantonese-Mandarin speakers exhibited more robust brainstem encoding of the lexical tones as compared to Cantonese speakers. From the current findings, we conclude that learning two tone languages may enhance lexical pitch encoding at the brainstem.

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Mothers utilize social comparisons to other parents to calibrate evaluations of themselves and their children, and these comparisons might prompt feelings of envy. Envy can either be malicious and destructive, or relatively more benign and constructive. This research examined distinctions between malicious and benign envy among Chinese mothers, differences from related emotions (i.e., resentment and admiration), and themes present in these experiences. An online sample of 152 Mainland Chinese mothers ( Mage = 46.91, SD = 2.26) recalled malicious and benign envy, admiration, and resentment experiences toward other parents and reported associated appraisals, motivations, and action tendencies. Results showed distinctions between malicious and benign maternal envy. Malicious envy included lower perceived control, higher perceived unfairness, and more desire to degrade the other than benign envy. Benevolent feelings toward the envied target characterized benign envy. Both forms of envy were linked to self-improvement motivation. Personal characteristics and achievements of both other parents and other children were prominent themes in mothers’ experiences of various emotions. This research provides insights into how and why Chinese mothers experience different forms of envy, and has implications for research on social comparisons made in parenting contexts.