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There is increasing evidence supporting a causal role of oxidatively damaged DNA in neurodegeneration during the natural aging process and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s. The presence of redox-active catecholamine neurotransmitters coupled with the localization of catalytic copper to DNA suggests a plausible role for these agents in the induction of oxidatively generated DNA damage. In this study we have investigated the role of Cu(II)-catalyzed oxidation of several catecholamine neurotransmitters and related neurotoxins to induce oxidatively generated DNA damage. Auto-oxidation of all catechol neurotransmitters and related congeners tested resulted in the formation of nearly a dozen oxidation DNA products resulting in a decomposition pattern that was essentially identical for all agents tested. The presence of Cu(II), and to a lesser extent Fe(III), had no effect on the decomposition pattern but substantially enhanced the DNA product levels by up to 75 fold, with dopamine producing the highest levels of unidentified oxidation DNA products (383 ± 46 adducts/106 nucleotides), comparable to 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine levels under the same conditions (122 ± 19 adducts/106 nucleotides). The addition of sodium azide, 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-4-piperidone, tiron, catalase, bathocuproine or methional to the dopamine/Cu(II) reaction mixture resulted in a substantial decrease (>90%) in oxidation DNA product levels, indicating a role of singlet oxygen, superoxide, H2O2, Cu(I) and Cu(I)OOH in their formation. While the addition of N-tert-butyl-α-phenylnitrone significantly decreased (67%) dopamine-mediated oxidatively damaged DNA, three other hydroxyl radical scavengers, ascorbic acid, sodium benzoate and mannitol, had little to no effect on these oxidation DNA product levels, suggesting that free hydroxyl radicals may have limited involvement in this dopamine/Cu(II)-mediated oxidatively generated DNA damage. These studies suggest a possible contributory role of oxidatively generated DNA damage by dopamine and related catechol neurotransmitters/neurotoxins in neurodegeneration and cell death. We also found that a naturally occurring broad spectrum antioxidant, ellagic acid, was substantially effective (nearly 50% inhibition) at low doses (1 μM) at preventing this dopamine/Cu(II)-mediated oxidatively generated DNA damage. Since dietary ellagic acid has been found to reduce oxidative stress in rat brains, a neuro-protective role of this polyphenol is plausible.

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common type accounting for 84% of all lung cancers. Paclitaxel (PAC) is a widely used drug in the treatment of a broad spectrum of human cancers, including lung. While efficacious, PAC generally is not well tolerated and its limitations include low aqueous solubility, and significant toxicity. To overcome the dose-related toxicity of solvent-based PAC, we utilized bovine colostrum-derived exosomes as a delivery vehicle for PAC for the treatment of lung cancer. Colostrum provided higher yield of exosomes and could be loaded with higher amount of PAC compared to mature milk. Exosomal formulation of PAC (ExoPAC) showed higher antiproliferative activity and inhibition of colony formation against A549 cells compared with PAC alone, and also showed antiproliferative activity against a drug-resistant variant of A549. To further enhance its efficacy, exosomes were attached with a tumor-targeting ligand, folic acid (FA). FA-ExoPAC given orally showed significant inhibition (>50%) of subcutaneous tumor xenograft while similar doses of PAC showed insignificant inhibition. In the orthotopic lung cancer model, oral dosing of FA-ExoPAC achieved greater efficacy (55% growth inhibition) than traditional i.v. PAC (24–32% growth inhibition) and similar efficacy as i.v. Abraxane (59% growth inhibition). The FA-ExoPAC given i.v. exceeded the therapeutic efficacy of Abraxane (76% growth inhibition). Finally, wild-type animals treated with p.o. ExoPAC did not show gross, systemic or immunotoxicity. Solvent-based PAC caused immunotoxicity which was either reduced or completely mitigated by its exosomal formulations. These studies show that a tumor-targeted oral formulation of PAC (FA-ExoPAC) significantly improved the overall efficacy and safety profile while providing a user-friendly, cost-effective alternative to bolus i.v. PAC and i.v. Abraxane.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are toxic industrial chemicals, complete carcinogens and efficacious tumor promoters. However, the mechanism(s) of PCB-mediated carcinogenicity remains largely undefined. One likely pathway by which these agents may play a role in carcinogenesis is the generation of oxidative DNA damage by redox cycling of dihydroxylated PCB metabolites. We have now employed a new 32 P-postlabeling system to examine novel oxidative DNA lesions induced by Cu 2+ -mediated activation of PCB metabolites. 32 P-Postlabeling of DNA incubated with various PCB metabolites resulted in over a dozen novel polar oxidative DNA adducts that were chromatographically similar for all active agents. The most potent metabolites tested were the hydroquinones (hydroxyl groups arranged para to each other) yielding polar oxidative adduct levels ranging from 55 to 142 adducts/10 6 nucleotides. PCB catechols, or ortho-dihydroxy metabolites, were up to 40% less active than their corresponding hydroquinone congeners while mono hydroxylated and quinone metabolites did not produce detectable oxidative damage over that of vehicle. With the exception of 2,4,5-Cl-2′,5′-dihydroxybiphenyl, this oxidative DNA damage appeared to be inversely related to chlorine content: no chlorine ≈ mono-> di-> tri-chlorinated metabolites. Importantly, copper, but not iron, was essential for activation of the PCB metabolites to these polar oxidative DNA adducts since in its absence or in the presence of the Cu + -specific scavenger, bathocuproine, no adducts were detected. Intervention studies with known reactive oxygen species (ROS) modifiers suggested that H 2 O 2 , singlet oxygen, hydroxyl radical and superoxide may also be involved in this PCB-mediated oxidative DNA damage. These data indicate a mechanistic role of several ROS, in addition to copper, in PCB-induced DNA damage and provide further support for oxidative DNA damage in PCB-mediated carcinogenesis.