Driven by the potential advantages and promising applications of organic solar cells, donor-acceptor (D-A) polymers have been intensively investigated in the past years. One of the strong electron-withdrawing groups that were widely used as acceptors for the construction of D-A polymers for applications in polymer solar cells and FETs is isoindigo. The isoindigo-based polymer solar cells have reached efficiencies up to ∼7% and hole mobilities as high as 3.62 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1) have been realized by FETs based on isoindigo polymers. Over one hundred isoindigo-based small molecules and polymers have been developed in only three years. This review is an attempt to summarize the structures and properties of the isoindigo-based polymers and small molecules that have been reported in the literature since their inception in 2010. Focus has been given only to the syntheses and device performances of those polymers and small molecules that were designed for use in solar cells and FETs. Attempt has been made to deduce structure-property relationships that would guide the design of isoindigo-based materials. It is expected that this review will present useful guidelines for the design of efficient isoindigo-based materials for applications in solar cells and FETs.

A new alternating polyfluorene copolymer poly[2,7‐(9,9‐dioctylfluoren)‐alt‐5,5‐(5′,8′‐di‐2‐thienyl‐(2′,3′‐bis‐(3′′‐octyloxyphenyl)‐quinoxaline))] (APFO‐15), which has electron donor–acceptor–donor units in between the fluorene units, is synthesized and characterized. This polymer has a strong absorption and emission in the visible range of the solar spectrum. Its electroluminescence and photoluminescence emissions extend from about 560 to 900 nm. Moreover, solar cells with efficiencies in excess of 3.5 % have been realized from blends of APFO‐15 and an electron acceptor molecule, a methanofullerene [6,6]‐phenyl‐C61‐butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM). It has also been observed that electron and hole transport is balanced both in the pure polymer phase and in polymer/PCBM bulk heterojunction films, which makes this material quite attractive for applications in opto‐electronic devices.

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Efficient near‐IR polymer solar cells based on the low‐bandgap alternating fluorene copolymer APFO‐Green 5 (shown in the figure) exhibit a photoresponse up to 800 nm. The copolymer performs well in combination with the common electron acceptor [6,6]‐phenyl‐C61‐butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM), reaching a power‐conversion efficiency of 2.2 % with a lower PCBM content in the active layer than previous devices based on low‐bandgap polymers.

All‐polymer solar cells (all‐PSCs) based on n‐ and p‐type polymers have emerged as promising alternatives to fullerene‐based solar cells due to their unique advantages such as good chemical and electronic adjustability, and better thermal and photochemical stabilities. Rapid advances have been made in the development of n‐type polymers consisting of various electron acceptor units for all‐PSCs. So far, more than 200 n‐type polymer acceptors have been reported. In the last seven years, the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of all‐PSCs rapidly increased and has now surpassed 10%, meaning they are approaching the performance of state‐of‐the‐art solar cells using fullerene derivatives as acceptors. This review discusses the design criteria, synthesis, and structure–property relationships of n‐type polymers that have been used in all‐PSCs. Additionally, it highlights the recent progress toward photovoltaic performance enhancement of binary, ternary, and tandem all‐PSCs. Finally, the challenges and prospects for further development of all‐PSCs are briefly considered.

Polythiophenes are a very versatile class of conjugated different polythiophenes. We also present our efforts in preparpolymers. Substituted polythiophenes can be tailored for ing substituted polythiophenes with high luminescence various applications by designing the side groups to give efficiency for use in polymer light-emitting diodes and lasers, the polymer different desired properties. Our work on and present studies of the photophysics of these polymers. preparing polythiophenes designed to have high stability Finally, we highlight design of substituted polythiophenes for in the doped state is described. We also discuss our efforts use in polymer photodiodes. on tuning the colour of the emission from polythiophenes for use in polymer light-emitting diodes. Design criteria Synthesis of polythiophenes for the synthesis of polythiophenes with high luminescence efficiency for use in light-emitting diodes and lasers arePure polythiophene without side chains is neither soluble nor also described. Finally, the design of polythiophenes for fusible. Once the polymer is prepared it is not possible to use in photodiodes is discussed.further process the prepared films or powder. However side chains which give solubility and fusibility to the polymer can be attached to the repeating unit (the thiophene ring).5 The