Maleic acid (MA) and AlCl 3 self-assemble into catalytic complexes (Al-(MA) 2 -(OH) 2 (aq)) with improved selectivity for converting glucose to HMF, and levulinic acid. The calculated activation energy (E a ) of the MA-aluminum catalyzed glucose-to-fructose isomerization is 95 kJ·mol -1 compared to 149 kJ·mol -1 for HCl and AlCl 3 alone. Furthermore, conversion of fructose to HMF is enhanced. The catalytic conversion of fructose to HMF by MA and AlCl 3 at 180 o C is 1.7× faster
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