The effectiveness of crossties in six sets of large-scale reinforced concrete short columns under monotonic axial compression is evaluated experimentally. The primary variables were type of crosstie engagement, type of crosstie, and crosstie placement offset. It was observed that minor placement offset up to 20 mm between hooks of crossties and longitudinal steel bars does not bring unfavorable consequences in confinement. The crosstie hook engagement of both hoop and longitudinal steel bar is better than that engagement of the longitudinal steel bar alone, but it is difficult in installation. Crossties composed of two straight end-180-deg hook steel bars give the best performance among the types of crosstie and it is convenient to facilitate the fabrication of reinforcing cages. However, the effectiveness under cyclic loading needs further study.
The relative constructions in several Palaungic languages (Htanaw, Wa, Lawa, Rumai Palaung, Samlong Palaung, and Rucing Palaung), here shown to be participant nominalizations, display striking mutual similarities, while conspicuously diverging from the dominant relativization strategy within the Austroasiatic family. Instead of the common n [rel (s) v (o)] pattern, the Palaungic constructions examined exhibit the following structural features: (a) rel invariably precedes the verb complex directly; (b) internal constituent order is vs(o), with the exception of Htanaw. An unusual functional trait is additionally found in the three Palaung varieties: the construction only performs object relativization. By placing the findings in a diachronic perspective, we propose two new pathways of branch-internal syntactic change that may explain this unusual synchronic status. Among these, the lexical-to-clausal-nominalization pathway in particular offers a plausible alternative scenario to the earlier hypothesis that such verb-initial structures are inherited from Proto-Austroasiatic (Jenny 2020). Furthermore, a tentatively suggested etymological origin of the relativizer, pAA *pa ‘place’, provides an account of the narrow semantics in Palaung.
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