The spatial and temporal variation in food abundance has strong effects on wildlife feeding and nutrition. Here we present the first long term study of the effects of variation in fruit availability and age/sex class on nutritional ecology of wild Bornean orangutans. We examined variation in nutrient intake of wild orangutans in living in a peat swamp habitat over a 7-year period at the Tuanan Orangutan Research Station in Central Kalimantan. We conducted 2,316 full-day focal follows on 62 habituated orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii). We found differences in total energy and macronutrient intake across age-sex classes, controlling for metabolic body mass. Intake of both total energy and macronutrients varied with fruit availability, and preference of dietary items increased with their nutritional quality. Foraging-related variables, such as day journey length, travel time, and feeding time, also varied among age-sex classes and with fruit availability. Our results add to the growing body of literature suggesting that great variation in foraging strategies exists among species, populations, and age-sex classes and in response to periods of resource scarcity.

Nutritional ecology has been linked to crop raiding behavior in a number of wildlife taxa. Here our goal is to explore the role nutrition plays in cacao crop raiding by Tonkean macaques Macaca tonkeana in Sulawesi, Indonesia. From June – Sept. 2008 we collected fruit samples from 13 species known to be important Tonkean macaque foods and compared their nutritional value to that of cacao Theobroma cacao, an important cash crop in Sulawesi. Cacao pulp was significantly lower in protein, but lower in dietary fiber, and higher in digestible carbohydrates and energy content compared to forest fruits. These findings, combined with the fact that cacao fruits are spatially concentrated and available throughout the year, likely explain why Tonkean macaques are attracted to this cultivated resource. We use these data along with published feeding ecology data to propose strategies to minimize human-macaque conflict. Namely, we recommend the deliberate protection of Elmerillila tsiampaccca, Ficus spp. and Arenga pinnata, fruit species known to be regularly consumed and of considerable nutritional value. We also identify the A. pinnata palm as a potential buffer resource to curb cacao crop raiding by macaques. Cacao is a hard-to-process food because the pods have a thick outer skin that encases the seeds and pulp. Aren palm fruit, although lower in digestibility, is easier-to-process, higher in protein, and also available year round. In addition, because the palm has considerable cultural and economic significance for local people, the strategy of planting Aren palm in a buffer corridor is likely to garner local community support.

Bottom-up regulatory factors have been proposed to exert a strong influence on mammalian population density. Studies relating habitat quality to population density have typically made comparisons among distant species or communities without considering variation in food quality among localities. We compared dietary nutritional quality of two Bornean orangutan populations with differing population densities in peatland habitats, Tuanan and Sabangau, separated by 63 km. We hypothesized that because Tuanan is alluvial, the plant species included in the orangutan diet would be of higher nutritional quality compared to Sabangau, resulting in higher daily caloric intake in Tuanan. We also predicted that forest productivity would be greater in Tuanan compared to Sabangau. In support of these hypotheses, the overall quality of the diet and the quality of matched dietary items were higher in Tuanan, resulting in higher daily caloric intake compared to Sabangau. These differences in dietary nutritional quality may provide insights into why orangutan population density is almost two times greater in Tuanan compared to Sabangau, in agreement with a potentially important influence of diet quality on primate population density.

Skin becomes the largest organ in the body and protects its own inner layer. The structure and chemical composition of the skin contribute to skin condition and affect the habitat of certain bacteria. The Sunda Porcupine is one of endemic animals of Indonesia which possesses quill as the main derivate of its skin and as a defence tool against predators. The present study used nine adults (five females and four males) of Sunda Porcupine and aimed to observe the correlation of skin structure with bacterial population at the surface level. The skin was wavy due to the protrusion of quill follicle orifices on the skin surface and formed clusters. The skin of Sunda Porcupine was also wrinkled and had a lot of flakiness. Histologically, the skin was composed of epidermis, dermis, hypodermis and subcutaneous muscle. The quill follicles and their properties were the dominant structure component of the skin. No sweat gland was observed in the skin of the Sunda Porcupine, and sebaceous gland was found only around quill and hair follicles. The bacterias identified in the skin were Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Micrococcus sp. and Salmonella sp. When compared, the bacterial population was higher in the lumbosacral region than in the thoracodorsal region, but the difference was not significant. The density of quill clusters was negatively correlated to the bacterial population. It was suggested the structure of the skin has contribution to bacterial population in dorsal trunk of the Sunda Porcupine.

The purpose of this research was to study the population of spotted cuscus (Spilocuscus maculatus) and the carrying capacity of its habitat. The result showed that the cuscus population size in 105 ha research area was 17 individuals, with population density of 0.41 individuals/ha or each individual occupied 2.44 ha. Cuscus is the first consumer in a food chain system that consumes a variety of plants and plays an important role in the spread of plant seeds. Its birth rate is higher than its death rate despite its low reproduction rate. Fruit-bearing trees with diameter > 10 cm as source of food for cuscus consisted of 13 species of 10 families with a diversity index of 2.43 (categorized as moderate). The productivity of cuscus food was 0.75 kg/season/ ha which indicated the limitations of the carrying capacity of cuscus' habitat so that the need of food was fulfilled from secondary forests and community gardens.