Since a corrosion process is a nonlinear electrochemical phenomenon, a potential perturbation signal by one or more sine waves will generate current responses at more frequencies than the frequencies of the applied signal. Current responses can then be measured, for example, at zero, harmonic, and intermodulation frequencies. This simple principle offers various possibilities for corrosion rate measurements, like the intermodulation or electrochemical frequency modulation (EFM) technique in which the potential perturbation signal consists of two sine waves of different frequencies. With this novel EFM technique, the corrosion rate can be determined from the corrosion system responses at the intermodulation frequencies. With the EFM technique a corrosion rate can be obtained instantaneously, without prior knowledge of the so-called Tafel parameters. The EFM approach requires only a small polarizing signal, and measurements can be completed in a short period. A special advantage of the EFM technique is its capability of inherent data validation control using "causality factors" (parameters introduced for the first time in this paper). It is shown that the EFM technique can be used successfully for corrosion rate measurements under various corrosion conditions, such as mild steel in an acidic environment with and without inhibitors and mild steel in a neutral environment.
The switching speed of conventional silicon-based optical switching devices based on plasma dispersion effect is limited by the lifetime of free carriers which introduce either phase or absorption changes. Here we report an all-optical logic NOR gate which does not rely on free carriers but instead uses two-photon absorption. High speed operation was achieved using pump induced non-degenerate two-photon absorption inside the submicron size silicon wire waveguides. The device required low pulse energy (few pJ) for logic gate operation. Ó 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.All-optical digital signal processing may be needed in future high capacity optical networks to overcome the speed limitations of electronics. All-optical logic gates such as NOR gate will be needed to perform the optical digital signal processing to accommodate the massive amount of traffic in terabit optical networks [1]. In addition, NOR gate can be used in performance monitoring for error detection, address and header recognition [2], encryption and data encoding [3], etc. Optical logic gates have been demonstrated in nonlinear optical fibers [4], semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) [5] and InGaAs/AlAsSb coupled double-quantum-well structures [6]. The latency and high optical power level for nonlinear operation make fiberbased devices unattractive for practical applications, while the long carrier lifetime in conventional SOAs may limit the speed unless some complicated differential switching scheme is employed.Submicron size silicon wire waveguides are possible because of the extremely high index contrast (n = 3.5 for silicon, and n = 1.45 for SiO 2 ), which allows the dimension of waveguides to be much smaller than in conventional low index contrast silica waveguidess [7]. The strong optical confinement and small effective modal area (<0.1 lm 2 ) of such waveguides can produce high optical intensities even at input optical powers typically used in telecommunications. The high optical intensities and long interaction lengths in the waveguides allow nonlinear optical effects to be readily apparent. Apart from other nonlinear optical devices such as optical fibers and SOA, silicon wire waveguides have good potential for other nonlinear devices for ultrafast photonics signal processing [8].We demonstrated previously an ultrafast optical switch (<3 ps) with pJ pump pulse energy in wire waveguides [9,10]. In this paper, we develop a high speed all-optical logic NOR gate based on the nonlinear transmission characteristics of two-photon absorption (TPA) in silicon. The direct use of TPA allows operation speeds which are not limited by the slow photo-generated carrier lifetime in the silicon wire waveguides.Since the sum of energies of two photons at 1.55 lm wavelength is greater than the indirect bandgap of silicon, 0030-4018/$ -see front matter Ó
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