Most schools in Macao are private schools, and there is a variety of grade repetition policy practiced in the 45 secondary schools. The policies are translated into school-based accountability of some kind of minimum competency standards. The objective of this study is to uncover the mediation mechanisms accounting for the influences of grade repetition on student performance. Three mechanisms are postulated to explain the performance of the adolescent grade repeaters: (1) insufficient opportunity to learn, (2) inadequate self-regulation of students, and (3) inappropriate teacher guidance and management. Based on the Programme for International Student Assessment 2012 Study, the three identified mechanisms (involving eight mediation variables) together explain 0.7 grade level worth of schooling. The implication is that unless remedial programs and courses of action for the grade repeaters can be shown empirically to be effective, it is not a good idea for Macao schools to maintain their grade repetition policies without teachers' proper guidance and instruction.
Nineteen OECD and partner economies participated in PISA 2009 digital reading literacy study. Drawing data from this sample survey, this study seeks to examine from a comparative education perspective the efficiency and effectiveness of webpage navigation on digital reading performance. First, the webpages of an exemplary test item and the associated scoring guide are analyzed to elucidate the significance of efficient and effective webpage navigation in order to score high marks in the assessment. Second, the authors make use of the three webpage navigation indicators developed and validated by the PISA 2009 Consortium to measure the student webpage navigation behaviors during the assessment. Third, non-linear multiple regression analyses are undertaken across the economies to examine: (1) whether the relationships of the three webpage navigation indicators with student digital reading performance are linear or not, and (2) the proportion of digital reading variance that can be explained by the webpage navigation indicators. By examining the domain and shape of the graph of the "navigation-performance" relationships, lights are thrown on the efficiency and effectiveness of digital reading webpage navigation behaviors of the students of the participating economies. Implications of the study are discussed for PISA digital reading assessment in the future.
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