Aim: The objective of this study was to identify the preferred bait of local dogs in Bali and estimate oral rabies vaccination (ORV) success in locations with varying geographic and demographic conditions. In addition, an evaluation of potential direct and indirect contact with the placebo sachet contents was conducted. Methods: The study was a randomized controlled trial conducted in two pilot areas of Bali using imported and hand-made baits. All dogs were offered a single bait containing a sachet of blue-dyed water using the “hand-out and retrieve” technique. Several methods were used to determine the likelihood of contact with the placebo vaccine. Comparing ORV with capture-vaccinate-release (CVR) methods, field officers were given Google Forms questions to answer. Statistical analysis was performed using univariate contingency table testing, followed by the development of a multiple logistic regression (MLR) model. Results: With 96.9% acceptance, intestine was the most popular bait for local dogs in Bali, and egg bait came in second (81.1%). However, the egg bait was 95.2% effective in releasing the vaccine in the oral cavity, followed by the intestine at 82.6%. 6.1% of surveyed households had direct contact with a dog that had recently consumed a vaccine bait. A survey among field officers also indicated that they preferred ORV over CVR, as the former is more suitable for vaccinating inaccessible dogs and less stressful for the teams and the animals. Conclusion: In Bali, both a locally-made intestine bait and an industrially-produced egg-flavored bait were readily taken up by local dogs. There is a small risk that people can come into contact with dogs previously offered a bait; hence, only vaccines with a high safety profile should be used. ORV can replace the currently used CVR method for vaccinating free-roaming dogs as a complementary tool to increase vaccination coverage.
Since 2017, a zoonoses prevention and control programme has been implemented in four pilot districts in Indonesia adopting a One Health (OH) approach, involving officers from the public health, animal health, and wildlife sectors. After a series of trainings, coordination among sectors has been enhanced and disease information shared among all sectors and used to guide rabies risk mitigation efforts. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the OH capacity building program in the pilot districts of Minahasa, Boyolali, Ketapang and Bengkalis. The initiative was assessed using the questionnaire data collected from each district and utilizing a framework developed by the Network for Evaluation of One Health (NEOH). The OH-index is used as an estimation of the degree to which OH is integrated into the operations and supporting infrastructure of the initiative. The results of this assessment show that the zoonoses prevention and control programme in Indonesia incorporates effectively the OH approach, both in its operations and the associated infrastructure. According to the data collected in four pilot areas, the initiative has a OH-ness index score of 0.74. This number indicates that this programme is a good example of how OH can be implemented in Indonesia.
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Dog-mediated rabies is endemic in much of Indonesia, including Bali. Most dogs in Bali are free-roaming and often inaccessible for parenteral vaccination without special effort. Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) is considered a promising alternative to increase vaccination coverage in these dogs. This study assessed immunogenicity in local dogs in Bali after oral administration of the highly attenuated third-generation rabies virus vaccine strain SPBN GASGAS. Dogs received the oral rabies vaccine either directly or by being offered an egg-flavored bait that contained a vaccine-loaded sachet. The humoral immune response was then compared with two further groups of dogs: a group that received a parenteral inactivated rabies vaccine and an unvaccinated control group. The animals were bled prior to vaccination and between 27 and 32 days after vaccination. The blood samples were tested for the presence of virus-binding antibodies using ELISA. The seroconversion rate in the three groups of vaccinated dogs did not differ significantly: bait: 88.9%; direct-oral: 94.1%; parenteral: 90.9%; control: 0%. There was no significant quantitative difference in the level of antibodies between orally and parenterally vaccinated dogs. This study confirms that SPBN GASGAS is capable of inducing an adequate immune response comparable to a parenteral vaccine under field conditions in Indonesia.
The One Health (OH) approach is widely accepted as the preferred method to address disease threats at the human-animal-environment interface and to help address emerging and endemic zoonotic diseases.A monitoring and evaluation tool for OH implementation is required to compile and present strong evidence on the effectiveness of the OH approach for disease prevention, early warning, enhanced detection and response to public health threats. This tool would be useful for policymakers and donors to act strategically and target budget and other resources to increase the effectiveness and operational aspects of OH disease prevention and control on the ground. The monitoring and evaluation methods include focus group discussions with key stakeholders, key informant interviews with multi-sectoral field officers, questionnaires, field observation, and data collection on detected and reported disease events. The OH monitoring tool (OHMT) consists of three sets of criteria: 1) communication, coordination, collaboration; 2) multi-sectoral disease response; and 3) sustainability. These criteria are scored at five capacity levels (no capacity; limited capacity; developed capacity; demonstrated capacity; and sustainable capacity). In January 2016, four districts in Indonesia were selected as One Health pilot areas based on their high-risk for zoonotic diseases. One Health capacity building activities were implemented in the pilot districts involving three technical sectors, namely animal health, public health, and wildlife health, to improve field officers' capacities to prevent, detect and respond to zoonotic disease events. There is limited literature on the methods and monitoring tools available to evaluate implementation of the OH approach at the field level. Therefore, in 2018, the Directorate General of Livestock and Animal Health Services (DGLAHS), Ministry of Agriculture and FAO developed the OHMT to track and evaluate the implementation of OH-focused field activities, understand the challenges experienced by field officers, and propose solutions for the prevention and control of zoonoses and EID.
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