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Unlike extant birds and mammals, most non-avian theropods had large muscular tails, with muscle arrangements similar to those of modern reptiles. Examination of ornithomimid and tyrannosaurid tails revealed sequential diagonal scarring on the lateral faces of four or more hemal spines that consistently correlates with the zone of the tail just anterior to the disappearance of the vertebral transverse processes. This sequential scarring is interpreted as the tapering boundary between the insertions of the M. caudofemoralis and the M. ilioischiocaudalis. Digital muscle reconstructions based on measurements of fossil specimens and dissections of modern reptiles showed that the M. caudofemoralis of many non-avian theropods was exceptionally large. These high caudofemoral mass estimates are consistent with the elevation of the transverse processes of the caudal vertebra above the centrum, which creates an enlarged hypaxial region. Dorsally elevated transverse processes are characteristic of even primitive theropods and suggest that a large M. caudofemoralis is a basal characteristic of the group. In the genus Tyrannosaurus, the mass of the M. caudofemoralis was further increased by dorsoventrally lengthening the hemal arches. The expanded M. caudofemoralis of Tyrannosaurus may have evolved as compensation for the animal's immense size. Because the M. caudofemoralis is the primary hind limb retractor, large M. caudofemoralis masses and the resulting contractile force and torque estimates presented here indicate a sizable investment in locomotive muscle among theropods with a range of body sizes and give new evidence in favor of greater athleticism, in terms of overall cursoriality, balance, and turning agility. Anat Rec, 294:119-131, 2011. V V C 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

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Recent evidence for feathers in theropods has led to speculations that the largest tyrannosaurids, including Tyrannosaurus rex, were extensively feathered. We describe fossil integument from Tyrannosaurus and other tyrannosaurids (Albertosaurus, Daspletosaurus, Gorgosaurus and Tarbosaurus), confirming that these large-bodied forms possessed scaly, reptilian-like skin. Body size evolution in tyrannosauroids reveals two independent occurrences of gigantism; specifically, the large sizes in Yutyrannus and tyrannosaurids were independently derived. These new findings demonstrate that extensive feather coverings observed in some early tyrannosauroids were lost by the Albian, basal to Tyrannosauridae. This loss is unrelated to palaeoclimate but possibly tied to the evolution of gigantism, although other mechanisms exist.