Context. Carbon rich objects represent an important phase during the late stages of evolution of low and intermediate mass stars. They contribute significantly to the chemical enrichment and to the infrared light of galaxies. A proper description of their atmospheres is crucial for the determination of fundamental parameters such as effective temperature or mass loss rate. Aims. We study the spectroscopic and photometric properties of carbon stars. In the first paper of this series we focus on objects that can be described by hydrostatic models neglecting dynamical phenomena like pulsation and mass loss. As a consequence, the reddening due to circumstellar dust is not included. Our results are collected in a database, which can be used in conjunction with stellar evolution and population synthesis calculations involving the AGB. Methods. We have computed a grid of 746 spherically symmetric COMARCS atmospheres covering effective temperatures between 2400 and 4000 K, surface gravities from log(g [cm/s 2 ]) = 0.0 to −1.0, metallicities ranging from the solar value down to one tenth of it and C/O ratios in the interval between 1.05 and 5.0. Subsequently, we used these models to create synthetic low resolution spectra and photometric data for a large number of filter systems. The tables including the results are electronically available. First tests of the application on stellar evolution calculations are shown. Results. We have selected some of the most commonly used colours in order to discuss their behaviour as a function of the stellar parameters. A comparison with measured data shows that down to 2800 K the agreement between predictions and observations of carbon stars is good and our results may be used to determine quantities like the effective temperature. Below this limit the synthetic colours are much too blue. The obvious reason for these problems is the neglect of circumstellar reddening and structural changes due to pulsation and mass loss. Conclusions. The warmer carbon stars with weak pulsation can be successfully described by our hydrostatic models. In order to include also the cooler objects with intense variations, at least a proper treatment of the reddening caused by the dusty envelopes is needed. This will be the topic of the second paper of this series.

Context. The evolution and spectral properties of stars on the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) are significantly affected by mass loss through dusty stellar winds. Dynamic atmosphere and wind models are an essential tool for studying these evolved stars, both individually and as members of stellar populations, to understand their contribution to the integrated light and chemical evolution of galaxies. Aims. This paper is part of a series with the purpose of testing state-of-the-art atmosphere and wind models of C-type AGB stars against observations, and making them available to the community for use in various theoretical and observational studies. Methods. We have computed low-resolution spectra and photometry (in the wavelength range 0.35-25 μm) for a grid of 540 dynamic models with stellar parameters typical of solar-metallicity C-rich AGB stars and with a range of pulsation amplitudes. The models cover the dynamic atmosphere and dusty outflow (if present), assuming spherical symmetry, and taking opacities of gas-phase species and dust grains consistently into account. To characterize the time-dependent dynamic and photometric behaviour of the models in a concise way we defined a number of classes for models with and without winds. Results. Comparisons with observed data in general show a quite satisfactory agreement for example regarding mass-loss rates vs. (J − K) colours or K magnitudes vs. (J − K) colours. Some exceptions from the good overall agreement, however, are found and attributed to the range of input parameters (e.g. relatively high carbon excesses) or intrinsic model assumptions (e.g. small particle limit for grain opacities). Conclusions. While current results indicate that some changes in model assumptions and parameter ranges should be made in the future to bring certain synthetic observables into better agreement with observations, it seems unlikely that these pending improvements will significantly affect the mass-loss rates of the models.

Context. Towards the end of the evolutionary stage of the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) the atmospheres of evolved red giants are considerably influenced by radial pulsations of the stellar interiors and developing stellar winds. The resulting complex velocity fields severely affect molecular line profiles (shapes, time-dependent shifts in wavelength, multiple components) observable in near-infrared spectra of long period variables. Time-series high-resolution spectroscopy allows us to probe the atmospheric kinematics and thereby study the mass loss process. Aims. With the help of model calculations the complex line formation process in AGB atmospheres was explored with the focus on velocity effects. Furthermore, we aimed for atmospheric models which are able to quantitatively reproduce line profile variations found in observed spectra of pulsating late-type giants. Methods. Models describing pulsation-enhanced dust-driven winds were used to compute synthetic spectra under the assumptions of chemical equilibrium and LTE. For this purpose, we used molecular data from line lists for the considered species and solved the radiative transfer in spherical geometry including the effects of velocity fields. Radial velocities (RV) derived from Doppler-shifted (components of) synthetic line profiles provide information on the gas velocities in the line-forming region of the spectral features. In addition, we made use of radial optical depth distributions to give estimates for the layers where lines are formed and to illustrate the effects of velocities in the line formation process. Results. Assuming uniform gas velocities for all depth points of an atmospheric model we estimated the conversion factor between gas velocities and measured RVs to p = u gas /RV ≈ 1.2−1.5. On the basis of dynamic model atmospheres and by applying our spectral synthesis codes we investigated in detail the finding that various molecular features in AGB spectra originate at different geometrical depths of the very extended atmospheres of these stars. We show that the models are able to quantitatively reproduce the characteristic line profile variations of lines sampling the deep photosphere (CO Δv = 3, CN) of Mira variables and the corresponding discontinuous, S-shaped RV curve. The global velocity fields (traced by different features) of typical long-period variables are also realistically reproduced. Possible reasons for discrepancies concerning other modelling results (e.g. CO Δv = 2 lines) are outlined. In addition, we present a model showing variations of CO Δv = 3 line profiles comparable to observed spectra of semiregular variables and discuss that the non-occurence of line doubling in these objects may be due to a density effect. Conclusions. The results of our line profile modelling are another indication that the dynamic models studied here are approaching a realistic representation of the outer layers of AGB stars with or without mass loss.

Context. Red giant stars approaching the end of the evolutionary phase of the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) are, inter alia, characterised by (i) pulsations of the stellar interiors; and (ii) the development of dusty stellar winds. Therefore, such very evolved objects cannot be adequately described with hydrostatic dust-free model atmospheres. Aims. By using self-consistent dynamic model atmospheres which simulate pulsation-enhanced dust-driven winds we studied in detail the influence of the above mentioned two effects on the spectral appearance of long period variables with carbon-rich atmospheric chemistry. While the pulsations lead to large-amplitude photometric variability, the dusty envelopes (resulting from the outflows which contain dust particles composed of amorphous carbon) cause pronounced circumstellar reddening. Methods. Based on one selected dynamical model which is representative of C-type Mira variables with intermediate mass loss rates, we calculated synthetic spectra and photometry for standard broad-band filters (Johnson-Cousins-Glass system) from the visual to the near-infrared. The synthetic photometry was subsequently compared with observational results. Results. Our modelling allows to investigate in detail the substantial effect of circumstellar dust on the resultant photometry. The pronounced absorption of amorphous carbon dust grains (increasing towards shorter wavelengths; Q abs /a ∝ λ −β with β ≈ 1), leads to colour indices which are significantly redder than the corresponding ones based on hydrostatic dust-free models. Only if we account for this circumstellar reddening we get synthetic colours that are comparable to observations of evolved AGB stars. The photometric variations of the dynamical model were compared to observed lightcurves of the C-type Mira RU Vir which appears to be quite similar to the model (although the model is not a dedicated fit). We found good agreement concerning the principal behaviour of the BVRIJHKL lightcurves and also quantitatively fitting details (e.g. magnitude ranges, the amplitude decrease from visual to NIR, absolute magnitudes). The analysed model is able to reproduce the variations of RU Vir and other Miras in (J − H) vs. (H − K) diagrams throughout the light cycle (ranges, loops). Contrasting the model photometry with observational data for a variety of galactic C-rich giants in such colour-colour diagrams proved that the chosen atmospheric model fits well into a sequence of objects with increasing mass loss rates, i.e., redder colour indices. Conclusions. The comparison of our synthetic photometry with observational results provides a further indication that the applied dynamic model atmospheres represent the outer layers of pulsating and mass-losing C-rich AGB stars reasonably well.

Context. The heavy mass loss observed in evolved asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars is usually attributed to a two-stage process: atmospheric levitation by pulsation-induced shock waves, followed by radiative acceleration of newly formed dust grains. The dust transfers momentum to the surrounding gas through collisions and thereby triggers a general outflow. Radiation-hydrodynamical models of M-type AGB stars suggest that these winds can be driven by photon scattering -in contrast to absorption -on Fe-free silicate grains of sizes 0.1-1 μm. Aims. In this paper we study photometric constraints for wind-driving dust species in M-type AGB stars, as part of an ongoing effort to identify likely candidates among the grain materials observed in circumstellar envelopes. Methods. To investigate the scenario of stellar winds driven by photon scattering on dust, and to explore how different optical and chemical properties of wind-driving dust species affect photometry we focus on two sets of dynamical models atmospheres: (i) models using a detailed description for the growth of Mg 2 SiO 4 grains, taking into account both scattering and absorption cross-sections when calculating the radiative acceleration; and (ii) models using a parameterized dust description, constructed to represent different chemical and optical dust properties. By comparing synthetic photometry from these two sets of models to observations of M-type AGB stars we can provide constraints on the properties of wind-driving dust species. Results. Photometry from wind models with a detailed description for the growth of Mg 2 SiO 4 grains reproduces well both the values and the time-dependent behavior of observations of M-type AGB stars, providing further support for the scenario of winds driven by photon scattering on dust. The photometry from the models with a parameterized dust description suggests that wind-drivers need to have a low absorption cross-section in the visual and near-IR to reproduce the time-dependent behavior, i.e. small variations in (J -K) and spanning a larger range in (V -K). This places constraints on the optical and chemical properties of the wind-driving dust species. Conclusions. To reproduce the observed photometric variations in (V -K) and (J -K) both detailed and parameterized models suggest that the wind-driving dust materials have to be quite transparent in the visual and near-IR. Consequently, strong candidates for outflows driven by photon scattering on dust grains are Mg 2 SiO 4 , MgSiO 3 , and potentially SiO 2 .