Tissue engineering needs innovative solutions to better fit the requirements of a minimally invasive approach, providing at the same time instructive cues to cells. The use of shape memory polyurethane has been investigated by producing 4D scaffolds via additive manufacturing technology. Scaffolds with two different pore network configurations (0/90° and 0/45°) were characterized by dynamic-mechanical analysis. The thermo-mechanical analysis showed a T at about 32 °C (T = T ), indicating no influence of the fabrication process on the transition temperature. In addition, shape recovery tests showed a good recovery of the permanent shape for both scaffold configurations. When cells were seeded onto the scaffolds in the temporary shape and the permanent shape was recovered, cells were significantly more elongated after shape recovery. Thus, the mechanical stimulus imparted by shape recovery is able to influence the shape of cells and nuclei. The obtained results indicate that a single mechanical stimulus is sufficient to initiate changes in the morphology of adherent cells.

Scaffolds for regenerative medicine applications should instruct cells with the appropriate signals, including biophysical stimuli such as stress and strain, to form the desired tissue. Apart from that, scaffolds, especially for load-bearing applications, should be capable of providing mechanical stability. Since both scaffold strength and stress–strain distributions throughout the scaffold depend on the scaffold’s internal architecture, it is important to understand how changes in architecture influence these parameters. In this study, four scaffold designs with different architectures were produced using additive manufacturing. The designs varied in fiber orientation, while fiber diameter, spacing, and layer height remained constant. Based on micro-CT (μCT) scans, finite element models (FEMs) were derived for finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD). FEA of scaffold compression was validated using μCT scan data of compressed scaffolds. Results of the FEA and CFD showed a significant impact of scaffold architecture on fluid shear stress and mechanical strain distribution. The average fluid shear stress ranged from 3.6 mPa for a 0/90 architecture to 6.8 mPa for a 0/90 offset architecture, and the surface shear strain from 0.0096 for a 0/90 offset architecture to 0.0214 for a 0/90 architecture. This subsequently resulted in variations of the predicted cell differentiation stimulus values on the scaffold surface. Fluid shear stress was mainly influenced by pore shape and size, while mechanical strain distribution depended mainly on the presence or absence of supportive columns in the scaffold architecture. Together, these results corroborate that scaffold architecture can be exploited to design scaffolds with regions that guide specific tissue development under compression and perfusion. In conjunction with optimization of stimulation regimes during bioreactor cultures, scaffold architecture optimization can be used to improve scaffold design for tissue engineering purposes.

In regenerative medicine studies, cell seeding efficiency is not only optimized by changing the chemistry of the biomaterials used as cell culture substrates, but also by altering scaffold geometry, culture and seeding conditions. In this study, the importance of seeding parameters, such as initial cell number, seeding volume, seeding concentration and seeding condition is shown. Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) were seeded into cylindrically shaped 4 × 3 mm polymeric scaffolds, fabricated by fused deposition modelling. The initial cell number ranged from 5 × 10(4) to 8 × 10(5) cells, in volumes varying from 50 µl to 400 µl. To study the effect of seeding conditions, a dynamic system, by means of an agitation plate, was compared with static culture for both scaffolds placed in a well plate or in a confined agarose moulded well. Cell seeding efficiency decreased when seeded with high initial cell numbers, whereas 2 × 10(5) cells seemed to be an optimal initial cell number in the scaffolds used here. The influence of seeding volume was shown to be dependent on the initial cell number used. By optimizing seeding parameters for each specific culture system, a more efficient use of donor cells can be achieved. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The mechanical properties of amorphous, degradable, and highly porous poly(lactide-co-caprolactone) structures have been improved by using a 3D fiber deposition (3DF) method. Two designs of 3DF scaffolds, with 45° and 90° layer rotation, were printed and compared with scaffolds produced by a salt-leaching method. The scaffolds had a porosity range from 64% to 82% and a high interconnectivity, measured by micro-computer tomography. The 3DF scaffolds had 8-9 times higher compressive stiffness and 3-5 times higher tensile stiffness than the salt-leached scaffolds. There was a distinct decrease in the molecular weight during printing as a consequence of the high temperature. The chain microstructure was, however, not affected; the glass transition temperature and the decomposition temperature were constant. Human OsteoBlast-like cells were cultured in vitro and the cell morphology and distribution were observed by scanning electron microscopy and fluorescence microscopy. The cell distribution on the 3DF scaffolds was more homogeneous than the salt-leached scaffolds, suggesting that 3DF scaffolds are more suitable as porous biomaterials for tissue engineering. These results show that it is possible to design and optimize the properties of amorphous polymer scaffolds. The 3DF method produce amorphous degradable poly(lactide-co-caprolactone) that are strong and particularly suitable for cell proliferation.

Regenerating or replacing bone, chondral and osteochondral defects, is an active field in tissue engineering. A general strategy is to use a temporary scaffold in which cells are seeded onto the scaffold prior to implantation or attracted into the scaffold from surrounding tissues in the implantation site to form the desired tissue. Several biomaterials have been used for the fabrication of scaffolds, including polycaprolactone (PCL) which is often used for musculoskeletal tissue engineering. The effect of the PCL scaffold architecture on the cell behavior has been investigated. However, the mechanical properties of the bulk material were not taken into account in these studies. PCL is available in a range of molecular weights, resulting in a range of bulk mechanical properties. Since bulk material stiffness is able to direct cell differentiation, it is likely that the molecular weight of PCL may influence cell behavior. Here, we investigated the bulk material properties of both low and high molecular weight PCL scaffolds fabricated through additive manufacturing. The low molecular weight PCL showed a lower bulk material stiffness.During in vitro cell culture, this resulted in a stronger tendency for hypertrophic chondrogenic differentiation compared to the high molecular weight PCL. This study shows that apart from the polymer chemistry and scaffold architecture, the bulk mechanical properties of the polymer used is an important parameter in scaffold fabrication. This is an important finding for the optimization of osteochondral tissue engineering.

In the field of tissue engineering, mechano-regulation theories have been applied to help predict tissue development in tissue engineering scaffolds in the past. For this, finite element models (FEMs) were used to predict the distribution of strains within a scaffold. However, the strains reported in these studies are volumetric strains of the material or strains developed in the extracellular matrix occupying the pore space. The initial phase of cell attachment and growth on the biomaterial surface has thus far been neglected. In this study, we present a model that determines the magnitude of biomechanical signals on the biomaterial surface, enabling us to predict cell differentiation stimulus values at this initial stage. Results showed that magnitudes of the 2D strain--termed surface strain--were lower when compared to the 3D volumetric strain or the conventional octahedral shear strain as used in current mechano-regulation theories. Results of both µCT and CAD derived FEMs from the same scaffold were compared. Strain and fluid shear stress distributions, and subsequently the cell differentiation stimulus, were highly dependent on the pore shape. CAD models were not able to capture the distributions seen in the µCT FEM. The calculated mechanical stimuli could be combined with current mechanobiological models resulting in a tool to predict cell differentiation in the initial phase of tissue engineering. Although experimental data is still necessary to properly link mechanical signals to cell behavior in this specific setting, this model is an important step towards optimizing scaffold architecture and/or stimulation regimes.

Computational modeling has been increasingly applied to the field of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Where in early days computational models were used to better understand the biomechanical requirements of targeted tissues to be regenerated, recently, more and more models are formulated to combine such biomechanical requirements with cell fate predictions to aid in the design of functional three-dimensional scaffolds. In this review, we highlight how computational modeling has been used to understand the mechanisms behind tissue formation and can be used for more rational and biomimetic scaffold-based tissue regeneration strategies. With a particular focus on musculoskeletal tissues, we discuss recent models attempting to predict cell activity in relation to specific mechanical and physical stimuli that can be applied to them through porous three-dimensional scaffolds. In doing so, we review the most common scaffold fabrication methods, with a critical view on those technologies that offer better properties to be more easily combined with computational modeling. Finally, we discuss how modeling, and in particular finite element analysis, can be used to optimize the design of scaffolds for skeletal tissue regeneration.

Laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) are highly regular, but at the same time contain a certain level of disorder. The application of LIPSS is a promising method to functionalize biomaterials. However, the absorption of laser energy of most polymer biomaterials is insufficient for the direct application of LIPSS. Here, we report the application of LIPSS to relevant biomaterials using a two-step approach. First, LIPSS are fabricated on a stainless steel surface. Then, the structures are replicated onto biomaterials using the steel as a mold. Results show that LIPSS can be transferred successfully using this approach, and that human mesenchymal stromal cells respond to the transferred structures. With this approach, the range of biomaterials that can be supplied with LIPSS increases dramatically.