The use of probiotics is increasing in popularity for both the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases. While a growing number of well-conducted, prospective, randomized, controlled, clinical trials are emerging and investigations of underlying mechanisms of action are being undertaken, questions remain with respect to the specific immune and physiological effects of probiotics in health and disease. This Review considers recent advances in clinical trials of probiotics for intestinal disorders in both adult and pediatric populations. An overview of recent in vitro and in vivo research related to potential mechanisms of action of various probiotic formulations is also considered.

Neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a major cause of morbidity in preterm infants. We hypothesize that the intestinal injury in this disease is a consequence of synergy among three of the major risk factors for NEC: prematurity, enteral feeding, and bacterial colonization. Together these factors result in an exaggerated inflammatory response, leading to ischemic bowel necrosis. Human milk may decrease the incidence of NEC by decreasing pathogenic bacterial colonization, promoting growth of nonpathogenic flora, promoting maturation of the intestinal barrier, and ameliorating the proinflammatory response.

Treatment of the immature pulpless tooth presents both an endodontic and restorative challenge. A more favorable long-term prognosis may be achieved with a mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA) apexification procedure followed by an internal bonding technique. We investigated the efficacy of this treatment option by testing the sealing ability and retention characteristics of MTA when placed as an apical barrier in a standardized in vitro open apex model. MTA was placed as an apical barrier at a thickness of 1 mm or 4 mm, with and without prior calcium hydroxide medication. The barriers were challenged with bacteria exposure within a leakage model and displacement forces on an Instron machine. In the leakage study, 100% of the MTA apical barriers showed bacterial penetration by day 70, compared with 20% of MTA root-end fillings used as controls. The displacement study demonstrated a statistically significant greater resistance to force with a 4-mm thickness of MTA, regardless of calcium hydroxide use. We concluded that it was the intracanal delivery technique and not the MTA that contributed to the leakage observed. MTA shows promise in our proposed treatment option of immature pulpless teeth if the sealing ability can be enhanced by improving the delivery technique.