Although the relationship between the use of antimicrobials and the development of resistant bacteria is well established, information about the use of antimicrobials in companion animals has been poorly described, which represents a risk to public health. The aim of this study was to describe the antimicrobial prescription patterns of Chilean companion animal veterinarians. A nationally distributed survey targeted at companion animal veterinarians was designed. The survey included questions about the veterinarian’s demographics, bacterial diseases treated, prescribed antimicrobials, and the use of laboratory diagnostic tools. Three hundred twenty-three responses were collected, most of the respondents were female (59.4%). The most frequently reported bacterial diseases were pyoderma (17.2%), followed by otitis and abscesses (7.4%). The antimicrobials most used corresponded with critically or highly important drugs for veterinary and human use, including β-lactams (65.3%), quinolones (36.2%) and tetracyclines (23.2%). Only 15% of the veterinarians reported the use of laboratory diagnostic tests, although 67% declared they were aware of the official antimicrobial classification schemes. Our results describe for the first time the usage of antimicrobials by veterinarian practitioners in Chile to treat different diseases in companion animals. The data presented here provide a baseline that could help to promote the implementation of clinical guidelines and regulations in order to improve current treatments.
<p>Se confrontan aquí las transformaciones residenciales y comerciales de dos calles ancladas en barrios históricos dentro de la ciudad de Santiago en Chile. Se postula la tesis de la consolidación y la latencia de la gentrificación a partir de dos casos de estudios. Las temporalidades y espacialidades del proceso se explican por la acción de promotores inmobiliarios o pioneros particulares, pero también por la omnipresencia o ausencia de los gobiernos locales. La calle Concha y Toro responde a una gentrificación clásica discontinua, expresiva de un mosaico socioespacial donde se superponen diferentes procesos y actores. En cambio, la gentrificación de la calle Italia se encuentra entre una segunda a cuarta oleada y se explica por las acciones del gobierno local promoviendo así, espacios fetiche.</p>
This chapter explores the application of EU Competition Law to the exploitation of human genome editing technology. Holders of key patents in the sector have applied different methods for disseminating the technology, such as different forms of licensing agreement and patent pools. It is found that that the competition rules are ill-suited to assess some of the licensing arrangements applied, which give rise to legal uncertainty. Accordingly, holders of patents on human genome editing technology may be discouraged to apply efficient methods for disseminating the technology. This may delay or obstruct some of the benefits the technology is supposed to deliver to the market, maker actors and consumers.
Cases in the intellectual property rights (IPR)–Competition Law intersection have raised the issue of costs of enforcement of IPRs when dealing with the assessment of whether competition law has been breached. Importantly, a systematic underestimation of enforcement costs may be problematic for the protection of underlying investments behind intellectual property as well as obstruct the cooperation between an IPR holder and its licensees, in particular as regards patent rights. Cases on reverse payments indicate that payments by a patent holder to a generic manufacturer under a settlement agreement may well be legitimate in order avoid enforcement costs while not restricting competition. The hard stance on no-challenge clauses and termination clauses under the technology transfer block exemption regulation (TTBER) can destabilize the relation between two parties that would benefit from increased certainty when cooperating to commercialize new technology. In cases regarding the failure of parties to agree on fair and reasonable and non-discriminatory-licensing of standard essential patents, a correct approach has probably been taken in Huawei. However, it is doubtful to what extent the judgment is based upon a balancing exercise that explicitly factors in enforcements cost. Accordingly, it is argued that the current framework of analysis of cases in the intersection is inadequate to proper assess enforcement costs of IPRs.
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