We reviewed 219 papers and built an inventory of 532 items of ecological evidence on multiple stressor impacts in rivers, lakes, transitional and coastal waters, as well as groundwaters. Our review revealed that, despite the existence of a huge conceptual knowledge base in aquatic ecology, few studies actually provide quantitative evidence on multi-stress effects. Nutrient stress was involved in 71% to 98% of multi-stress situations in the three types of surface water environments, and in 42% of those in groundwaters. However, their impact manifested differently along the groundwater-river-lake-transitional-coastal continuum, mainly determined by the different hydro-morphological features of these ecosystems. The reviewed papers addressed two-stressor combinations most frequently (42%), corresponding with the actual status-quo of pressures acting on European surface waters as reported by the Member States in the WISE WFD Database (EEA, 2015). Across all biological groups analysed, higher explanatory power of the stress-effect models was discernible for lakes under multi-stressor compared to single stressor conditions, but generally lower for coastal and transitional waters. Across all aquatic environments, the explanatory power of stress-effect models for fish increased when multi-stressor conditions were taken into account in the analysis, qualifying this organism group as a useful indicator of multi-stress effects. In contrast, the explanatory power of models using benthic flora decreased under conditions of multiple stress.
A: WF, weighting factor. S S : V Z M The impact of varying soil micromorphology on soil hydraulic proper es and, consequently, on water fl ow and herbicide transport observed in the fi eld is demonstrated on three soil types. The micromorphological image of a humic horizon of Haplic Luvisol showed higher-order aggregates. The majority of detectable pores corresponding to the pressure head interval between −2 and −70 cm were highly connected, separa ng higher-order peds with small intrapores that possibly formed zones with immobile water. Herbicide was regularly distributed in this soil. The majority of detectable large capillary pores in a humic horizon of Greyic Phaeozem were separated and aff ected by clay coa ngs and fi llings. The herbicide transport in this soil was highly aff ected by preferen al fl ow. Macropores corresponding to pressure heads higher than −2 cm were detected in a humic horizon of Haplic Cambisol. However, preferen al fl ow only slightly infl uenced the herbicide transport in this soil. Single-porosity and either dual-porosity or dual-permeability fl ow and transport models in HYDRUS-1D were used to es mate the soil hydraulic parameters from laboratory mul step ou low and ponded infi ltra on experiments via numerical inversion and to simulate the herbicide transport experimentally studied in the fi eld. Appropriate models were selected on the basis of the soil micromorphological study.
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