Diabetic cardiomyopathy is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, and Insulin2 mutant (Ins2+/−) Akita is a genetic mice model of diabetes relevant to humans. Dicer, miRNAs and inflammatory cytokines are associated with heart failure. However, the differential expression of miRNAs, dicer and inflammatory molecules are not clear in diabetic cardiomyopathy of Akita. We measured the levels of miRNAs, dicer, pro-inflammatory tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), and anti-inflammatory interleukin 10 (IL-10) in C57BL/6J (WT) and Akita hearts. The results revealed increased heart to body weight ratio and robust expression of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP: a hypertrophy marker) suggesting cardiac hypertrophy in Akita. The multiplex RT-PCR, qPCR and immunoblotting showed up regulation of dicer whereas miRNA array elicited spread down regulation of miRNAs in Akita including dramatic down regulation of let-7a, miR-130, miR-142-3p, miR-148, miR-338, miR-345-3p, miR-384-3p, miR-433, miR-450, miR-451, miR-455, miR-494, miR-499, miR-500, miR-542-3p, miR-744, and miR-872. Conversely, miR-295 is induced in Akita. Cardiac TNFα is up regulated at mRNA (RT-PCR and qPCR), protein (immunoblotting), and cellular (immunohistochemistry and confocal microscopy) levels, and is robust in hypertrophic cardiomyocytes suggesting direct association of TNFα with hypertrophy. Contrary to TNFα, cardiac IL-10 is down regulated in Akita. In conclusion, induction of dicer and TNFα, and attenuation of IL-10 and majority of miRNAs contributes to diabetic cardiomyopathy in Akita.

The contribution of extracellular matrix (ECM) to stem cell survival and differentiation is unequivocal, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) induces ECM turn over; however, the role of MMP9 in the survival and differentiation of cardiac stem cells is unclear. We hypothesize that ablation of MMP9 enhances the survival and differentiation of cardiac stem cells into cardiomyocytes in diabetics. To test our hypothesis, Ins2(+/-) Akita, C57 BL/6J, and double knock out (DKO: Ins2(+/-)/MMP9(-/-)) mice were used. We created the DKO mice by deleting the MMP9 gene from Ins2(+/-). The above 3 groups of mice were genotyped. The activity and expression of MMP9 in the 3 groups were determined by in-gel gelatin zymography, Western blotting, and confocal microscopy. To determine the role of MMP9 in ECM stiffness (fibrosis), we measured collagen deposition in the histological sections of hearts using Masson's trichrome staining. The role of MMP9 in cardiac stem cell survival and differentiation was determined by co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) of MMP9 with c-kit (a marker of stem cells) and measuring the level of troponin I (a marker of cardiomyocytes) by confocal microscopy in the 3 groups. Our results revealed that ablation of MMP9 (i) reduces the stiffness of ECM by decreasing collagen accumulation (fibrosis), and (ii) enhances the survival (elevated c-kit level) and differentiation of cardiac stem cells into cardiomyocytes (increased troponin I) in diabetes. We conclude that inhibition of MMP9 ameliorates stem cell survival and their differentiation into cardiomyocytes in diabetes.

Despite our cognizance that diabetes can enhance the chances of heart failure, causes multiorgan failure,and contributes to morbidity and mortality, it is rapidly increasing menace worldwide. Less attention has been paid to alert prediabetics through determining the comprehensive predictors of diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) and ameliorating DCM using novel approaches. DCM is recognized as asymptomatic progressing structural and functional remodeling in the heart of diabetics, in the absence of coronary atherosclerosis and hypertension. The three major stages of DCM are: (1) early stage, where cellular and metabolic changes occur without obvious systolic dysfunction; (2) middle stage, which is characterized by increased apoptosis, a slight increase in left ventricular size, and diastolic dysfunction and where ejection fraction (EF) is <50%; and (3) late stage, which is characterized by alteration in microvasculature compliance, an increase in left ventricular size, and a decrease in cardiac performance leading to heart failure. Recent investigations have revealed that DCM is multifactorial in nature and cellular, molecular, and metabolic perturbations predisposed and contributed to DCM. Differential expression of microRNA (miRNA), signaling molecules involved in glucose metabolism, hyperlipidemia, advanced glycogen end products, cardiac extracellular matrix remodeling, and alteration in survival and differentiation of resident cardiac stem cells are manifested in DCM. A sedentary lifestyle and high fat diet causes obesity and this leads to type 2 diabetes and DCM. However, exercise training improves insulin sensitivity, contractility of cardiomyocytes, and cardiac performance in type 2 diabetes. These findings provide new clues to diagnose and mitigate DCM. This review embodies developments in the field of DCM with the aim of elucidating the future perspectives of predictors and prevention of DCM.

Cardiac muscle is unique because it contracts ceaselessly throughout the life and is highly resistant to fatigue. The marvelous nature of the cardiac muscle is attributed to its matrix that maintains structural and functional integrity and provides ambient micro-environment required for mechanical, cellular and molecular activities in the heart. Cardiac matrix dictates the endothelium-myocyte (E-M) coupling and contractility of cardiomyocytes. The Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) regulate matrix degradation that determines cardiac fibrosis and myocardial performance. We have shown that MMP-9 regulates differential expression of micro RNAs (miRNAs), calcium cycling and contractility of cardiomyocytes. The differential expression of miRNAs is associated with angiogenesis, hypertrophy and fibrosis in the heart. MMP-9, which is involved in the degradation of cardiac matrix and induction of fibrosis, is also implicated in inhibition of survival and differentiation of cardiac stem cells (CSC). Cardiac matrix is distinct because it renders mechanical properties and provides a framework essential for differentiation of cardiac progenitor cells (CPC) into specific lineage. Cardiac matrix regulates myocyte contractility by E-M coupling and calcium transients and also directs miRNAs required for precise regulation of continuous and synchronized beating of cardiomyocytes that is indispensible for survival. Alteration in the matrix homeostasis due to induction of MMPs, altered expression of specific miRNAs or impaired signaling for contractility of cardiomyocytes leads to catastrophic effects. This review describes the mechanisms by which cardiac matrix regulates myocardial performance and suggests future directions for the development of treatment strategies in cardiovascular diseases.

Increasing evidence suggests that a sedentary lifestyle and a high fat diet (HFD) leads to cardiomyopathy. Moderate exercise ameliorates cardiac dysfunction, however underlying molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. Increased inflammation due to induction of pro-inflammatory cytokine such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and attenuation of anti-inflammatory cytokine such as interleukin 10 (IL-10) contributes to cardiac dysfunction in obese and diabetics. We hypothesized that exercise training ameliorates HFD- induced cardiac dysfunction by mitigating obesity and inflammation through upregulation of IL-10 and downregulation of TNF-α. To test this hypothesis, 8 week old, female C57BL/6J mice were fed with HFD and exercised (swimming 1 h/day for 5 days/week for 8 weeks). The four treatment groups: normal diet (ND), HFD, HFD + exercise (HFD + Ex) and ND + Ex were analyzed for mean body weight, blood glucose level, TNF-α, IL-10, cardiac fibrosis by Masson Trichrome, and cardiac dysfunction by echocardiography. Mean body weights were increased in HFD but comparatively less in HFD + Ex. The level of TNF-α was elevated and IL-10 was downregulated in HFD but ameliorated in HFD + Ex. Cardiac fibrosis increased in HFD and was attenuated by exercise in the HFD + Ex group. The percentage ejection fraction and fractional shortening were decreased in HFD but comparatively increased in HFD + Ex. There was no difference between ND and ND + Ex for the above parameters except an increase in IL-10 level following exercise. Based on these results, we conclude that exercise mitigates HFD- induced cardiomyopathy by decreasing obesity, inducing IL-10, and reducing TNF-α in mice.

We tested the hypothesis that miR-133a regulates DNA methylation by inhibiting Dnmt-1 (maintenance) and Dnmt-3a and -3b (de novo) methyl transferase in diabetic hearts by using Ins2+/− Akita (diabetic) and C57BL/6J (WT) mice and HL1 cardiomyocytes. The specific role of miR-133a in DNA methylation in diabetes was assessed by two treatment groups (1) scrambled, miR-133a mimic, anti-miR-133a, and (2) 5mM glucose (CT), 25mM glucose (HG) and HG+miR-133a mimic. The levels of miR-133a, Dnmt-1, -3a and -3b were measured by multiplex RT-PCR, qPCR and Western blotting. The results revealed that miR-133a is inhibited but Dnmt-1 and -3b are induced in Akita suggesting that attenuation of miR-133a induces both maintenance (Dnmt-1) - and de-novo -methylation (Dnmt-3b) in diabetes. The up regulation of Dnmt-3a elicits intricate and antagonizing interaction between Dnmt-3a and -3b. In cardiomyocytes, over expression of miR-133a inhibits but silencing of miR-133a induces Dnmt-1, -3a and -3b elucidating the involvement of miR-133a in regulation of DNA methylation. The HG treatment up regulates only Dnmt-1 and not Dnmt-3a and -3b suggesting that acute hyperglycemia triggers only maintenance methylation. The over expression of miR-133a mitigates glucose mediated induction of Dnmt-1 elucidating the role of miR-133a in regulation of DNA methylation in diabetes.

Summary Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are totipotent, self-renewing and clonogenic having potential to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types. Due to regenerative capability, it has tremendous potential for treating myocardial infarction (death of myocardial tissue) and diabetes (death of pancreatic beta cells). Understanding the components regulating ESC differentiation is the key to unlock the regenerative potential of ESC-based therapies. Both the stiffness of extracellular matrix (ECM) and surrounding niche / microenvironment play pivotal roles in ESC differentiation. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) induces fibrosis that causes stiffness of the ECM and impairs differentiation of cardiac stem cells into cardiomyocytes. Here, we describe the method of ESC culture and differentiation and the expression of MMP9 and its inhibitor, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-4 (TIMP4) in differentiating ESC.

Diabetes is a rapidly increasing disease that enhances the chances of heart failure twofold to fourfold (as compared to age and sex matched nondiabetics) and becomes a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. There are two broad classifications of diabetes: type1 diabetes (T1D) and type2 diabetes (T2D). Several mice models mimic both T1D and T2D in humans. However, the genetic intervention to ameliorate diabetic cardiomyopathy in these mice often requires creating double knockout (DKO). In order to assess the therapeutic potential of a gene, that specific gene is either overexpressed (transgenic expression) or abrogated (knockout) in the diabetic mice. If the genetic mice model for diabetes is used, it is necessary to create DKO with transgenic/knockout of the target gene to investigate the specific role of that gene in pathological cardiac remodeling in diabetics. One of the important genes involved in extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling in diabetes is matrix metalloproteinase-9 (Mmp9). Mmp9 is a collagenase that remains latent in healthy hearts but induced in diabetic hearts. Activated Mmp9 degrades extracellular matrix (ECM) and increases matrix turnover causing cardiac fibrosis that leads to heart failure. Insulin2 mutant (Ins2+/-) Akita is a genetic model for T1D that becomes diabetic spontaneously at the age of 3-4 weeks and show robust hyperglycemia at the age of 10-12 weeks. It is a chronic model of T1D. In Ins2+/- Akita, Mmp9 is induced. To investigate the specific role of Mmp9 in diabetic hearts, it is necessary to create diabetic mice where Mmp9 gene is deleted. Here, we describe the method to generate Ins2+/-/Mmp9-/- (DKO) mice to determine whether the abrogation of Mmp9 ameliorates diabetic cardiomyopathy.