This study presents a literature review of 22 studies published since 2004 that use linguistic procedures to evaluate narratives by persons who had suffered any traumatic event. The aim is to analyze the features of traumatic memories and, thus, how individuals construct and integrate their recall of what happened with other autobiographical memories. It uses cognitive theoretical models of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and their hypotheses about trauma memories as a framework. Findings reveal that trauma narratives are dominated by sensorial/perceptual and emotional details. The study of other narrative aspects (i.e., fragmentation, length, temporal context, and references to self) provides heterogeneous results. Results are discussed in light of the current state of PTSD research, exploring the principal hypotheses that have been proposed in cognitive theories to explain clinical findings.
Resumen: El presente trabajo analiza la distribución de los niveles de resiliencia en cuidadores no profesionales (familiares) de personas mayores dependientes, y explora las características que poseen los cuidadores altamente resilientes. Para ello se administró la escala CD-RISC a una muestra de 111 cuidadores. En función de las puntuaciones obtenidas, se distinguieron dos grupos: alta vs. moderada o baja resiliencia. Se analizaron las diferencias entre ambos grupos en las diversas variables que afectan al estrés del cuidador. Aunque hubo diferencias en el estado cognitivo del receptor de cuidado, las mayores diferencias se obtuvieron en las denominadas variables mediadoras, observando en los cuidadores con alta resiliencia mayores puntuaciones en: satisfacción con el apoyo social recibido, autoeficacia para controlar los pensamientos negativos, autoestima, autocuidado y extraversión; y siendo estas diferencias estadísticamente significativas. Asimismo los cuidadores altamente resilientes tendieron a manifestar una menor preocupación por los problemas del mayor, y presentaron menores niveles de sintomatología depresiva y ansiosa. Este estudio pone de manifiesto la importancia de la resiliencia como factor de protección en el ámbito del estrés crónico, incorporando aspectos positivos de la adaptación a los modelos teóricos de cuidado, los cuales tradicionalmente se han venido centrando en el desarrollo de sintomatología. Palabras clave: Cuidador; resiliencia; dependencia; adaptación.Title: Resilience in caregivers of elderly dependent relatives. Abstract: The present study analyzes resilience levels in caregivers of elderly dependent relatives and explores the characteristics of highly resilient caregivers. With this aim, the CD-RISC was selected to assess a sample of 111 caregivers. According with CD-RISC scores, two groups of subject were established: high vs. moderate or low resilience. Differences between both groups were examined. Although there were differences in the cognitive status of care recipient, the more relevant differences were found in mediator variables. So, highly resilient group reported greater levels of: satisfaction with social support, self-efficacy to control negative thoughts, extraversion and self-care; being these differences statistically significant. Moreover resilient caregivers tended to show less reaction to patient behavioral disturbance, and they had lower levels of depression and anxiety symptoms. These findings emphasize the relevance of resilience as a protective factor in chronic stress situations. This involves the incorporation of positive aspects to theoretical models of caregiving, which traditionally have focused on the development of symptoms.
Results highlight that interventions aimed to improve caregivers' strategies to address memory and behavior problems and to promote the use of effective coping strategies could be helpful to prevent anger and expression-out of anger. Reducing burden in caregivers might result in reductions of anger expression-in. Data underscore the need to consider anger feeling and both in-expression and out-expression of anger separately in order to understand anger experience in caregivers.
Traditional models of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) claim that the high emotional intensity of traumatic events leads to deficits in the voluntary access of traumatic memories. This may result in disorganized narratives, with a high sense of emotional and sensory reliving. Alternatively, the basic mechanisms view suggests that high arousal leads to more available involuntary and voluntary memories. Traumatic narratives would not be impaired; indeed, they would be immersive and rich in detail. To test this perspective, this study compared the trauma narratives of 50 battered women (trauma-exposed group) with narratives about positive experiences and narratives of 50 nonexposed women (controls), and analyzed the relationship between trauma narrative aspects and the severity of PTSD. Results showed that trauma narratives were detailed, oriented, and coherent. Affective process words and emotional tone were related to trauma centrality and anxiety during disclosure, and predicted the severity of PTSD (R = .26). These variables, together with the use of present tense verbs, accounted for a significant variance in intrusions (R = .34). As hypothesized, narrative aspects related to a sense of reliving and narrative immersion were better predictors of PTSD than aspects reflecting impaired access to voluntary traumatic memories.
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