The ability to selectively kill cancerous cell populations while leaving healthy cells unaffected is a key goal in anticancer therapeutics. The use of nanoporous silica-based materials as drug-delivery vehicles has recently proven successful, yet production of these materials requires costly and toxic chemicals. Here we use diatom microalgae-derived nanoporous biosilica to deliver chemotherapeutic drugs to cancer cells. The diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana is genetically engineered to display an IgG-binding domain of protein G on the biosilica surface, enabling attachment of cell-targeting antibodies. Neuroblastoma and B-lymphoma cells are selectively targeted and killed by biosilica displaying specific antibodies sorbed with drug-loaded nanoparticles. Treatment with the same biosilica leads to tumour growth regression in a subcutaneous mouse xenograft model of neuroblastoma. These data indicate that genetically engineered biosilica frustules may be used as versatile 'backpacks' for the targeted delivery of poorly water-soluble anticancer drugs to tumour sites.

Activin-A is a transforming growth factor-␤ (TGF-␤) superfamily member that plays a pivotal role in many developmental and reproductive processes. It is also involved in neuroprotection, apoptosis of tumor and some immune cells, wound healing, and cancer. Its role as an immuneregulating protein has not previously been described. Here we demonstrate for the first time that activin-A has potent autocrine effects on the capacity of human dendritic cells (DCs) to stimulate immune responses. Human monocyte-derived DCs IntroductionDendritic cells (DCs) form sentinel networks within the body sampling the microenvironment for pathogens, tissue injury, and inflammation via an array of pattern recognition receptors. [1][2][3] Pathogen encounter induces DC maturation, resulting in profound alterations in DC function. Antigen uptake is reduced, antigen processing is enhanced, and proinflammatory mediators are released. [4][5][6][7][8] The class, magnitude, and timing of cytokine or chemokine release are under exquisite control through both autocrine and paracrine signals as well as the signal strength and magnitude of the initiating stimulus. 8 DC cytokine and chemokine production can be induced by specific classes of stimuli. These include CD40 ligand (CD40L) and pathogen signals, such as toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists (eg, lipopolysaccharide [LPS] or intact bacteria). Appropriate release of cytokines, chemokines, and other soluble mediators by DCs and neighboring cells induces and moderates inflammation, recruits innate effectors, and regulates T-cell functions. [9][10][11][12] Many cytokines/chemokines produced by DCs at the epicenter of infection and inflammation, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), 13,14 IL-8, 4,15,16 IL-10 17,18 as well as the potent T helper 1 (Th-1) cytokine, 19,20 have pleiotropic effects ranging from enhancing to inhibitory depending on the context and target cell type. However, uncontrolled cytokine/chemokine release within this microenvironment can also result in inappropriate T-and B-cell responses and subsequent immunopathology. [21][22][23] In this regard, the immune system has evolved to coordinately express mediators that attenuate exaggerated or inappropriate responses so as to minimize tissue damage and immunopathology (eg, prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), transforming growth factor-␤ [TGF-␤]). 24 Activin-A is a homodimer of activin-␤A subunits and was first described as a reproductive factor that accentuates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone. 25 It is a member of the TGF-␤ superfamily of cytokines and intimately shares with TGF-␤ the Smad intracellular signaling proteins. 26 The signaling, however, occurs through separate and distinct serine threonine kinase receptor subunits, and its release into the circulation during acute systemic inflammation differs from TGF-␤. 27 Activin-A signals through heteromeric receptor complexes consisting of both type I (ALK 2, 4, or 7) and type II (ActRIIA and ActRIIB) receptors. In addition, it is known to be pivotal in ...

A common mutation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an extracellular truncation known as the de2-7 EGFR (or EGFRvIII). Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is the ligand for the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) c-Met, and this signaling axis is often active in GBM. The expression of the HGF/c-Met axis or de2-7 EGFR independently enhances GBM growth and invasiveness, particularly through the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/pAkt pathway. Using RTK arrays, we show that expression of de2-7 EGFR in U87MG GBM cells leads to the coactivation of several RTKs, including platelet-derived growth factor receptor beta and c-Met. A neutralizing antibody to HGF (AMG102) did not inhibit de2-7 EGFR-mediated activation of c-Met, demonstrating that it is ligand-independent. Therapy for parental U87MG xenografts with AMG 102 resulted in significant inhibition of tumor growth, whereas U87MG.Delta 2-7 xenografts were profoundly resistant. Treatment of U87MG.Delta 2-7 xenografts with panitumumab, an anti-EGFR antibody, only partially inhibited tumor growth as xenografts rapidly reverted to the HGF/c-Met signaling pathway. Cotreatment with panitumumab and AMG 102 prevented this escape leading to significant tumor inhibition through an apoptotic mechanism, consistent with the induction of oncogenic shock. This observation provides a rationale for using panitumumab and AMG 102 in combination for the treatment of GBM patients. These results illustrate that GBM cells can rapidly change the RTK driving their oncogene addiction if the alternate RTK signals through the same downstream pathway. Consequently, inhibition of a dominant oncogene by targeted therapy can alter the hierarchy of RTKs resulting in rapid therapeutic resistance.

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The clinical application of siRNA is limited largely by the lack of efficient, cell-specific delivery systems. Antibodies are attractive delivery vehicles for targeted therapy due to their high specificity. In this study we describe the use of a humanized monoclonal antibody (mAb), hu3S193, against Lewis-Y (Ley), as a delivery vehicle for STAT3 siRNA. This mAb is rapidly internalized into Ley expressing cancer cells via antigen recognition, and when coupled to STAT3 siRNA, a potentially powerful molecularly targeted delivery agent is created. Selective silencing of STAT3 is associated with tumor suppression. Two hu3S193 based siRNA delivery systems using STAT3 siRNA as a prototype were developed and tested in Ley-positive cancer cells: (a) a covalent construct based on a reductive disulfide linker that is expected to undergo cleavage within cells and (b) a non-covalent construct based on (D-Arginine)9 (9r) modified hu3S193. Ley-specific binding and internalization of both the covalent and non-covalent constructs were confirmed by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Both the covalent and the non-covalent system led to efficient STAT3 silencing in Ley-positive cancer cells (A431), but not in Ley-negative cancer cells (MDA-MB-435). The covalent construct, however, required co-treatment with reagents such as chloroquine or 9r that facilitate the escape of the siRNA from endosomes to achieve significant gene silencing. The 9r modified non-covalent construct, induced ~70% STAT3 knockdown at sub-micromolar siRNA concentrations when used at an optimal vehicle-to-siRNA ratio of 5:1. The STAT3 knockdown also led to ~50% inhibition of cell proliferation of Ley-positive cells. Non-covalent linked STAT3 siRNA-hu3S193 has great promise for targeted knockdown of STAT3 in tumor cells.

The anticancer drug Adriamycin is widely used in cancer chemotherapy and is classified as a topoisomerase II inhibitor. However, in the presence of formaldehyde, Adriamycin also forms high levels of DNA adducts. In this study, a new series of butyric acid and formaldehyde-releasing drugs related to AN9 (pivaloyloxymethyl butyrate) was assessed for their ability to facilitate Adriamycin-DNA adduct formation in Adriamycin-sensitive and -resistant cell lines (HL60 and HL60/MX2; MES-SA and MES-SA/Dx5). Drugs that released two molar equivalents of formaldehyde per mole of prodrug were superior in their ability to enhance adduct formation compared to those that released one molar equivalent. Adduct formation (as assessed by binding of radiolabeled Adriamycin to genomic DNA) was always lower in the resistant cell lines compared to the sensitive cell lines. However, in growth inhibition experiments, prodrug combinations were able to overcome Adriamycin resistance to varying degrees, and the combination of Adriamycin with selected prodrugs that release two moles of formaldehyde totally overcame resistance in HL60/MX2 cells. These HL60-derived cells express altered levels of topoisomerase II and also express a mutant form of the enzyme. Combinations of Adriamycin with selected prodrugs that release one or two moles of formaldehyde partially overcame P-glycoprotein-mediated resistance in MES-SA/Dx5 cells. Formaldehyde-releasing prodrugs (as single agents) overcame both forms of resistance in the two resistant cell lines, demonstrating that they were not substrates of these resistance mechanisms. Collectively, these results suggest that changing the mechanism via which Adriamycin exerts its anticancer effect by dramatically increasing adduct levels (requiring coadministration of formaldehyde-releasing prodrugs) may be a useful means of cancer treatment, as well as for overcoming Adriamycin-induced resistance.

The anthracycline group of compounds is extensively used in current cancer chemotherapy regimens and is classified as topoisomerase II inhibitor. However, previous work has shown that doxorubicin can be activated to form DNA adducts in the presence of formaldehyde-releasing prodrugs and that this leads to apoptosis independently of topoisomerase II -mediated damage. To determine which anthracyclines would be useful in combination with formaldehyde-releasing prodrugs, a series of clinically relevant anthracyclines (doxorubicin, daunorubicin, idarubicin, and epirubicin) were examined for their capacity to form DNA adducts in MCF7 and MCF7/Dx (P-glycoprotein overexpressing) cells in the presence of the formaldehydereleasing drug pivaloyloxymethyl butyrate (AN-9). All anthracyclines, with the exception of epirubicin, efficiently yielded adducts in both sensitive and resistant cell lines, and levels of adducts were similar in mitochondrial and nuclear genomes. Idarubicin was the most active compound in both sensitive and resistant cell lines, whereas adducts formed by doxorubicin and daunorubicin were consistently lower in the resistant compared with sensitive cells. The adducts formed by doxorubicin, daunorubicin, and idarubicin showed the same DNA sequence specificity in sensitive and resistant cells as assessed by L-exonuclease -based sequencing of A-satellite DNA extracted from drug-treated cells. Growth inhibition assays were used to show that doxorubicin, daunorubicin, and idarubicin were all synergistic in combination with AN-9, whereas the combination of epirubicin with AN-9 was additive. Although apoptosis assays indicated a greater than additive effect for epirubicin/AN-9 combinations, this effect was much more pronounced for doxorubicin/AN-9 combinations.