Dopamine-containing neurons of the mammalian midbrain are required for normal behavior and movements. In vivo they fire action potentials in bursts, but in vitro they discharge regularly spaced action potentials. Burst firing in vitro has now been shown to be robustly induced by the glutamate agonist N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) although not by the non-NMDA agonists kainate or quisqualate. The hyperpolarization between bursts of action potentials results from electrogenic sodium ion extrusion by a ouabain-sensitive pump. This mechanism of burst generation in mammalian neurons may be important in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease.

We use the qualitative insight of a planar neuronal phase portrait to detect an excitability switch in arbitrary conductance-based models from a simple mathematical condition. The condition expresses a balance between ion channels that provide a negative feedback at resting potential (restorative channels) and those that provide a positive feedback at resting potential (regenerative channels). Geometrically, the condition imposes a transcritical bifurcation that rules the switch of excitability through the variation of a single physiological parameter. Our analysis of six different published conductance based models always finds the transcritical bifurcation and the associated switch in excitability, which suggests that the mathematical predictions have a physiological relevance and that a same regulatory mechanism is potentially involved in the excitability and signaling of many neurons.

Activation of small conductance calcium-activated potassium (K Ca 2) channels can regulate neuronal firing and synaptic plasticity. They are characterized by their high sensitivity to the bee venom toxin apamin, but the mechanism of block is not understood. For example, apamin binds to both K Ca 2.2 and K Ca 2.3 with the same high affinity (K D ϳ 5 pM for both subtypes) but requires significantly higher concentrations to block functional current (IC 50 values of ϳ100 pM and ϳ5 nM, respectively). This suggests that steps beyond binding are needed for channel block to occur. We have combined patch clamp and binding experiments on cell lines with molecular modeling and mutagenesis to gain more insight into the mechanism of action of the toxin. An outer pore histidine residue common to both subtypes was found to be critical for both binding and block by the toxin but not for block by tetraethylammonium (TEA) ions. These data indicated that apamin blocks K Ca 2 channels by binding to a site distinct from that used by TEA, supported by a finding that the onset of block by apamin was not affected by the presence of TEA. Structural modeling of ligand-channel interaction indicated that TEA binds deep within the channel pore, which contrasted with apamin being modeled to interact with the channel outer pore by utilizing the outer pore histidine residue. This multidisciplinary approach suggested that apamin does not behave as a classical pore blocker but blocks using an allosteric mechanism that is consistent with observed differences between binding affinity and potency of block.K Ca 2 channels (formerly known as SK channels) are characterized by their sensitivity to the highly specific toxin apamin (1). This 18-amino acid peptide, which has been isolated from the honeybee (Apis mellifera) venom (2), contains two disulfide bridges that provide a fairly rigid tertiary conformation (3), with two arginine residues (Arg-13 and Arg-14) being critical for its biological activity (4). The cloning of K Ca 2 channel subunits has revealed the existence of three subtypes (K Ca 2.1-K Ca 2.3, formerly SK1-SK3) (5) that bind apamin with very high affinity (K D ϳ 5-10 pM) (see Ref. 6 for a review). However, apamin is less potent at blocking K Ca 2 current and displays differential block of channel subtypes. For example, K Ca 2.2 (all species) displays the highest sensitivity, with IC 50 values from 27 to 140 pM. Rat, human, and mouse K Ca 2.3-mediated currents show an intermediate sensitivity, with IC 50 values ranging from 0.63 to 19 nM. Finally, human K Ca 2.1 is the least sensitive, with reported IC 50 values ranging between 0.7 and 100 nM (6). These differences between binding and electrophysiological results suggest that the mechanism of block by apamin is complex and that binding and block by the toxin are not identical phenomena.K Ca 2 channel subtypes are expressed throughout the CNS and periphery, displaying partially overlapping but distinct locations. This has led to the proposal that block of K Ca 2 channels may be a novel t...

Endogenous opioid peptides and prescription opioid drugs modulate pain, anxiety and stress by activating opioid receptors, currently classified into four subtypes. Here we demonstrate that ACKR3/CXCR7, hitherto known as an atypical scavenger receptor for chemokines, is a broad-spectrum scavenger of opioid peptides. Phylogenetically, ACKR3 is intermediate between chemokine and opioid receptors and is present in various brain regions together with classical opioid receptors. Functionally, ACKR3 is a scavenger receptor for a wide variety of opioid peptides, especially enkephalins and dynorphins, reducing their availability for the classical opioid receptors. ACKR3 is not modulated by prescription opioids, but we show that an ACKR3-selective subnanomolar competitor peptide, LIH383, can restrain ACKR3's negative regulatory function on opioid peptides in rat brain and potentiate their activity towards classical receptors, which may open alternative therapeutic avenues for opioidrelated disorders. Altogether, our results reveal that ACKR3 is an atypical opioid receptor with cross-family ligand selectivity.

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Dopamine (DA) neurons and GABA neurons of the substantia nigra (SN) promote distinct functions in the control of movement and have different firing properties and action potential (AP) waveforms. APs recorded from DA and GABA neurons differed in amplitude, maximal rate of rise, and duration. In addition, the threshold potential for APs was higher in DA neurons than in GABA neurons. The activation of voltage-gated Na(+) channels accounts largely for these differences as the application of a low concentration of the voltage-gated Na(+) channel blocker TTX had an effect on all of these parameters. We have examined functional properties of somatic Na(+) channels in nucleated patches isolated from DA and GABA neurons. Peak amplitudes of macroscopic Na(+) currents were smaller in DA neurons in comparison to those in GABA neurons. The mean peak Na(+) conductance density was 24.5 pS microm(-2) in DA neurons and almost twice as large, 41.6 pS microm(-2), in GABA neurons. The voltage dependence of Na(+) channel activation was not different between the two types of SN neurons. Na(+) channels in DA and GABA neurons, however, differed in the voltage dependence of inactivation, the mean mid-point potential of steady-state inactivation curve being more positive in DA neurons than in GABA neurons. The results suggest that specific Na(+) channel gating properties and Na(+) conductance densities in the somatic membrane of SN neurons may have consequences on synaptic signal integration in the soma of both types of neurons and on somatodendritic release of dopamine by DA neurons.

Homo-and heteromeric complexes of KCNQ channel subunits are the molecular correlate of the M-current, a neuron-specific voltage-dependent K ϩ current with a well established role in control of neural excitability. We investigated the effect of KCNQ channel modulators on the activity of dopaminergic neurons in vitro and in vivo in the rat ventral mesencephalon. The firing of dopaminergic neurons recorded in mesencephalic slices was robustly inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner by the KCNQ channel opener N-(2-amino-4-(4-fluorobenzylamino)-phenyl) carbamic acid ethyl ester (retigabine). The effect of retigabine persisted in the presence of tetrodotoxin and simultaneous blockade of GABA A receptors, smallconductance calcium-activated K ϩ (SK) channels, and hyperpolarization-activated (I h ) channels, and it was potently reversed by the KCNQ channel blocker 4-pyridinylmethyl-9(10H)-anthracenone (XE991), indicating a direct effect on KCNQ channels. Likewise, in vivo single unit recordings from dopaminergic neurons revealed a prominent reduction in spike activity after systemic administration of retigabine. Furthermore, retigabine inhibited dopamine synthesis and c-Fos expression in the striatum under basal conditions. Retigabine completely blocked the excitatory effect of dopamine D 2 autoreceptor antagonists. Again, the in vitro and in vivo effects of retigabine were completely reversed by preadministration of XE991. Dual immunocytochemistry revealed that KCNQ4 is the major KCNQ channel subunit expressed in all dopaminergic neurons in the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal pathways. Collectively, these observations indicate that retigabine negatively modulates dopaminergic neurotransmission, likely originating from stimulation of mesencephalic KCNQ4 channels.KCNQ (also termed Kv7) channels are voltage-dependent potassium channels composed of homo-and heteromeric complexes of five different KCNQ subunits (KCNQ1-5, Kv7.1-Kv7.5). Unlike KCNQ1, all other KCNQ subunits (KCNQ2-5) are expressed in the CNS (Jentsch, 2000). Opening of KCNQ channels leads to neuronal hyperpolarization, thereby stabilizing the membrane potential and decreasing excitability. This makes them particularly interesting as targets in CNS diseases linked to hyperexcitability, including epilepsy, anxiety, pain, and migraine (Blackburn-Munro et al., 2005). The attractiveness of neuronal KCNQ channels in the treatment of such disease states is strongly supported by the identification of mutations within the human KCNQ genes. Thus, mutations in the KCNQ2 and KCNQ3 genes are associated with benign familial neonatal convulsions (Biervert et al., 1998), and certain mutations in the KCNQ4 gene result in progressive hearing loss (Kubisch et al., 1999). Several attempts have been made to find pharmacological KCNQ modulators. N-(2-Amino-4-(4-fluorobenzylamino)-This work was supported by the European Union 6th Framework Program (LSHM-CT-2004-503038) (to H.E.H., C.E., C.M., P.W., and L.C.R.) and by a grant from the Fonds National de la Recherche Scienti...

Midbrain dopaminergic neurons are endowed with endogenous slow pacemaking properties. In recent years, many different groups have studied the basis for this phenomenon, often with conflicting conclusions. In particular, the role of a slowly-inactivating L-type calcium channel in the depolarizing phase between spikes is controversial, and the analysis of slow oscillatory potential (SOP) recordings during the blockade of sodium channels has led to conflicting conclusions. Based on a minimal model of a dopaminergic neuron, our analysis suggests that the same experimental protocol may lead to drastically different observations in almost identical neurons. For example, complete L-type calcium channel blockade eliminates spontaneous firing or has almost no effect in two neurons differing by less than 1% in their maximal sodium conductance. The same prediction can be reproduced in a state of the art detailed model of a dopaminergic neuron. Some of these predictions are confirmed experimentally using single-cell recordings in brain slices. Our minimal model exhibits SOPs when sodium channels are blocked, these SOPs being uncorrelated with the spiking activity, as has been shown experimentally. We also show that block of a specific conductance (in this case, the SK conductance) can have a different effect on these two oscillatory behaviors (pacemaking and SOPs), despite the fact that they have the same initiating mechanism. These results highlight the fact that computational approaches, besides their well known confirmatory and predictive interests in neurophysiology, may also be useful to resolve apparent discrepancies between experimental results.