Multidrug-resistant
bacteria have emerged in both community and
hospital settings, partly due to the misuse of antibiotics. The inventory
of viable antibiotics is rapidly declining, and efforts toward discovering
newer antibiotics are not yielding the desired outcomes. Therefore,
alternate antibacterial therapies based on physical mechanisms such
as light and ultrasound are being explored. Sonodynamic therapy (SDT)
is an emerging therapeutic approach that involves exposing target
tissues to a nontoxic sensitizing chemical and low-intensity ultrasound.
SDT can enable site-specific cytotoxicity by producing reactive oxygen
species (ROS) in response to ultrasound, which can be harnessed for
treating bacterial infections. This approach can potentially be used
for both superficial and deep-seated microbial infections. The majority
of the sonosensitizers reported are nonpolar, exhibiting limited bioavailability
and a high clearance rate in the body. Therefore, targeted delivery
agents such as nanoparticle composites, liposomes, and microbubbles
are being investigated. This article reviews recent developments in
antibacterial sonodynamic therapy, emphasizing biophysical and chemical
mechanisms, novel delivery agents, ultrasound exposure and image guidance
strategies, and the challenges in the pathway to clinical translation.
The synthesis of
water-soluble thioglycosylated A2B2 type porphyrins
and their zinc(II) complexes is reported.
The water-soluble trans-A2B2 porphyrins were synthesized in two steps, via [2+2] condensation
between thioglycosylated dipyrromethanes and aromatic aldehydes in
15–21% yields. The thioglycosylated trans-A2B2 porphyrins showed decent in vitro singlet oxygen generation, which was supported by the intracellular
DCFDA study. The in vitro cellular investigations
of thioglycosylated A2B2 porphyrins were carried
out in lung cancer cells (A549) to test their photodynamic therapeutic
(PDT) activity. The PDT study revealed significant cytotoxicities
of porphyrins with IC50 values between 23.3 and 44.2 μM
in the dark, whereas, after visible light exposure, the photosensitizers
exhibited IC50 values around 11.1–23.8 μM.
The water-soluble thioglycosylated zinc(II) porphyrins having two meso-N-butylcarbazole groups exhibited an excellent degree
of photocytotoxicity (IC50 = 4.6–8.8 μM).
The flow cytometry analysis revealed that cellular uptake and ROS
(reactive oxygen species) generation efficiency of water-soluble thioglycosylated
zinc(II) porphyrins were considerably higher than nonmetalated porphyrins.
Confocal microscopy images displayed substantial distribution in the
endoplasmic reticulum with partial colocalization in mitochondria
and lysosomes of water-soluble thioglycosylated zinc(II) porphyrins
in A549 cells.
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