In human inflammatory diseases, we identified endothelial angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) expression to be strongly associated with inflammations mediated by myeloid cells but not lymphocytes. To identify the underlying mechanism, we made use of a transgenic mouse model with inducible endothelial cell-specific expression of Ang-2. In this model, in the absence of inflammatory stimuli, long-term expression of Ang-2 led to a time-dependent accumulation of myeloid cells in numerous organs, suggesting that Ang-2 is sufficient to recruit myeloid cells. In models of acute inflammation, such as delayed-type hypersensitivity and peritonitis, Ang-2 transgenic animals showed an increased responsiveness. Intravital fluorescence video microscopy revealed augmented cell adhesion as an underlying event. Consequently, we demonstrated that Ang-2 is able to induce strong monocyte adhesion under shear in vitro, which could be blocked by antibodies to ␤ 2 -integrin. Taken together, our results describe Ang-2 as a novel, endothelialderived regulator of myeloid cell infiltration that modulates ␤ 2 -integrinmediated adhesion in a paracrine manner. (Blood. 2011;118(18):5050-5059)

Psoriasis is a frequent and often severe inflammatory skin disease, characterized by altered epidermal homeostasis. Since we found previously that Akt/mTOR signaling is hyperactivated in psoriatic skin, we aimed at elucidating the role of aberrant mTORC1 signaling in this disease. We found that under healthy conditions mTOR signaling was shut off when keratinocytes switch from proliferation to terminal differentiation. Inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-17A, TNF-α) induced aberrant mTOR activity which led to enhanced proliferation and reduced expression of differentiation markers. Conversely, regular differentiation could be restored if mTORC1 signaling was blocked. In mice, activation of mTOR through the agonist MHY1485 also led to aberrant epidermal organization and involucrin distribution. In summary, these results not only identify mTORC1 as an important signal integrator pivotal for the cells fate to either proliferate or differentiate, but emphasize the role of inflammation-dependent mTOR activation as a psoriatic pathomechanism.

The mTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin) inhibitor rapamycin has long been known for its immune suppressive properties, but it has shown limited therapeutic success when given systemically to patients with psoriasis. Recent data have shown that the mTOR pathway is hyperactivated in lesional psoriatic skin, which probably contributes to the disease by interfering with maturation of keratinocytes. This study investigated the effect of topical rapamycin treatment in an imiquimod-induced psoriatic mouse model. The disease was less severe if the mice had received rapamycin treatment. Immunohistological analysis revealed that rapamycin not only prevented the activation of mTOR signalling (P-mTOR and P-S6 levels), but almost normalized the expression of epidermal differentiation markers. In addition, the influx of innate immune cells into the draining lymph nodes was partially reduced by rapamycin treatment. These data emphasize the role of mTOR signalling in the pathogenesis of psoriasis, and support the investigation of topical mTOR inhibition as a novel anti-psoriatic strategy.

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The barrier function of the human epidermis is constantly challenged by environmental osmotic fluctuations. Hypotonic stress triggers cell swelling, which is counteracted by a compensatory mechanism called regulatory volume decrease (RVD) involving volume‐regulated anion channels (VRACs). Recently, it was discovered that VRACs are composed of LRRC8 heteromers and that LRRC8A functions as the essential VRAC subunit in various mammalian cell types; however, the molecular identity of VRACs in the human epidermis remains to be determined. Here, we investigated the expression of LRRC8A and its role in hypotonic stress response of human keratinocytes. Immunohistological staining showed that LRRC8A is preferentially localized in basal and suprabasal epidermal layers. RNA sequencing revealed that LRRC8A is the most abundant subunit within the LRRC8 gene family in HaCaT cells as well as in primary normal human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEKs). To determine the contribution of LRRC8A to hypotonic stress response, we generated HaCaT‐ and NHEK‐LRRC8A knockout cells by using CRISPR‐Cas9. I− influx assays using halide‐sensitive YFP showed that LRRC8A is crucially important for mediating VRAC activity in HaCaTs and NHEKs. Moreover, cell volume measurements using calcein‐AM dye further revealed that LRRC8A also substantially contributes to RVD. In summary, our study provides new insights into hypotonic stress response and suggests an important role of LRRC8A as VRAC component in human keratinocytes.

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Psoriasis primarily affects the skin, but also has a systemic dimension and is associated with severe comorbidities. Since endothelial cells play an important role in psoriasis as well as in the development of cardiovascular comorbidities, we investigated whether a common mechanism, namely cytokine-induced insulin resistance, underlies both pathologies. Activation of the insulin pathway was studied in psoriatic skin and dermal endothelial cells. Expression of adhesion molecules was assessed by flow cytometry, as well as their biological function in flow chamber experiments. The phosphorylation status of Akt, a central kinase in the insulin pathway, suggests that endothelial cells within psoriatic plaques are rendered insulin resistant by pro-inflammatory cytokines. Insulin counteracts the expression of adhesion molecules, but has limited effects on interactions between T cells and endothelial cells. Pro-inflammatory cytokines induce insulin resistance in endothelial cells, which may contribute to the development of the inflammatory infiltrate in psoriasis.

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