Clinical mastitis of dairy cows is a visible inflammation of the udder, which is usually caused by bacteria and treated with antibiotics. Although pressure is increasing to reduce antibiotic usage in livestock in the European Union, feedback from the field suggests that clinical mastitis treatment is frequently repeated after the initial per-label treatment, thereby extending treatment duration. The aim of this study was to explore the social factors influencing farmers' decision-making on the duration of antibiotic treatment of clinical mastitis. In total, 38 dairy farmers in the Netherlands (n=17) and Germany (n=21) were interviewed in a qualitative semi-structured way. Extended treatment was defined as any treatment longer than that given in label directions. Of the 38 farmers, 30 reported routine and 7 occasional extended antibiotic treatment. The interviewed farmers were sensitive toward social norms of other farmers and recognition for good stockmanship. Extended treatment is perceived as part of the social norm of "being a good farmer." The participants' perception was that mastitis is not treated "thoroughly" if clinical symptoms were still visible at the time of cessation of treatment, because it may persist or recur. As a result, treatment was frequently extended by repeating the initial label treatment. Farmers, specifically the more "cow-oriented" farmers, expressed insecurity on how to treat mastitis effectively. This insecurity made them more sensitive to comply with other farmers' injunctive ("what ought to be") and descriptive ("what is done") norms and the perceived veterinarians' informational norm that extended treatment is better, resulting in an approved social norm. Social approval reduces the insecurity of being perceived as a poor farmer; thus, extended treatment is emotionally rewarded. This social reward apparently outweighs the higher costs of more waste milk and more antibiotic usage. Perceived positive reference groups with whom the farmer identifies and regularly communicates face to face, such as other farmers, the herd veterinarian, and other farm advisors, confirm the farmer's judgment on extending treatment and influences him or her toward socially accepted behavior. Society was the most negative reference group, barely influencing farmers' decision-making on treatment. The emotional gap between farmers and society is large and probably difficult to overcome. Legislation may reduce antibiotic usage, if doable and controllable. Evidence-based information on treatment efficacy or practical on-farm decision support indicating when to end treatment may be able to change social norms of "thorough" treatment, especially when communicated by a positive reference group such as veterinarians. Because prudent antibiotic use is hindered by perceived subjective norms on optimal duration of antibiotic treatment, more research is needed, particularly on the optimal duration of antibiotic treatment of specific pathogens as related to cure and recurrence of clinical mastitis.
Bovine clinical mastitis quarter foremilk samples were collected from 15 German dairy farms for the isolation of Streptococcus uberis strains. Samples were also collected from the 8 spots where Streptococcus uberis was most expected in the dairy environment to investigate the transmission behavior of Streptococcus uberis within the farm. The selected environmental spots for sampling were the inner surface of the milking liner, drinking troughs (on pasture and in the barn), exit area of milking parlor, bedding material from the lying area in the barn, passageway to pasture, lying area of soil or vegetation on pasture, and the barn area in front of the milking parlor. We performed pulsed-field gel electrophoresis on 237 Streptococcus uberis isolates to identify environmental strains that matched those from mastitis milk. The same strains were detected on the passageway to the pasture, milking parlor waiting area, in one of the liners, and a drinking trough. Streptococcus uberis strains showed high variability within farms and because identical strains (in mastitis milk and environment) were found in different environmental localizations, its transmission appears to be farm specific. Thus, to establish a farm-specific mastitis control strategy, the main environmental sources of Streptococcus uberis must be analyzed for matching strains. A molecular method such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis is an important tool that can be used to obtain the necessary information.
Evaluating acid-base status is important for monitoring dairy herd health. In a field study, we aimed to compare the acid-base status measured by net acid-base excretion (NABE) in urine with results of venous blood analysis in clinically healthy, but possibly metabolically burdened cows in their transition period. For this, we sampled blood from the jugular vein and urine from 145 German Holstein cows within 1 to 76 days post-partum. In blood, the metabolic parameters non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), as well as numerous parameters of the acid-base status were measured. The traditional approach, based on bicarbonate concentration, base excess (BE) and anion gap (AG), was compared to the strong ion approach variables, e.g. acid total (Atot), measured strong ion difference (SIDm), strong ion gap (SIG), and unmeasured anions (XA), respectively. Results of both approaches were set against the outcome of urine analysis, i.e. the NABE, base-acid ratio and pH of urine, in a cluster analysis, which provided 7 moderately stable clusters. Evaluating and interpreting these 7 clusters offered novel insights into the pathophysiology of the acid-base equilibrium in fresh post-partum dairy cows. Especially in case of subclinical acid-base disorders, the parameters of the strong ion difference theory, particularly SIDm, Atot and SIG or XA, provided more in-depth information about acid-base status than the traditional parameters BE, bicarbonate or AG in blood. The acid-base status of fresh cows with protein aberrations in blood could be differentiated in a much better way using the strong ion approach than by traditional blood gas analysis or by the measurement of urinary excretion. Therefore, the strong ion approach seems to be a suitable supplement for monitoring acid-base balance in dairy cattle.
Machine milking-induced alterations of teat tissue may impair local defense mechanisms and increase the risk of new intramammary infections. The objective of the current study was to assess the influence of short-term and long-term alterations of teat tissue and infectious status of the udder quarter on the risk of naturally occurring new intramammary infections, inflammatory responses, and mastitis. Short-term and long-term changes in teat condition of right udder quarters of 135 cows of a commercial dairy farm in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, were recorded monthly for 10 mo using simple classification schemes. Quarter milk samples were collected from all examined quarters at each farm visit. Bacteriological culture results and somatic cell counts of quarter milk samples were used to determine new inflammatory responses (increase from ≤100,000 cells/mL to >100,000 cells/mL between 2 samples), new infections (detection of a pathogen from a quarter that was free of the same pathogen at the preceding sampling), and new mastitis (combination of new inflammatory response and new infection). Separate Poisson mixed models for new inflammatory responses, new infections, and new mastitis caused by specific pathogens or groups of pathogens (contagious, environmental, major, minor, or any) were used to estimate risk ratios and 95% confidence intervals. Data preparation and parameter estimation were performed using the open source statistical analysis software R. We observed no effect of any variable describing teat condition on the risk of new intramammary infections, inflammatory responses, or mastitis. Intramammary infections of the same udder quarter in the preceding month did not affect risk either.
Background In the literature, there is absent or weak evidence on the effectiveness of biosecurity measures to the control of Salmonella spp. and hepatitis E virus (HEV) on pig farms. Therefore, the present study aimed to collect, weigh, and compare opinions from experts on the relevance of several biosecurity measures. An online questionnaire was submitted to selected experts, from multiple European countries, knowledgeable on either HEV or Salmonella spp., in either indoor or outdoor pig farming systems (settings). The experts ranked the relevance of eight biosecurity categories with regards to effectiveness in reducing the two pathogens separately, by assigning a score from a total of 80, and within each biosecurity category they scored the relevance of specific biosecurity measures (scale 1–5). Agreement among experts was analysed across pathogens and across settings. Results After filtering for completeness and expertise, 46 responses were analysed, with 52% of the experts identified as researchers/scientists, whereas the remaining 48% consisted of non-researchers, veterinary practitioners and advisors, governmental staff, and consultant/industrial experts. The experts self-declared their level of knowledge but neither Multidimensional Scaling nor k-means cluster analyses produced evidence of an association between expertise and the biosecurity answers, and so all experts’ responses were analysed together without weighting or adaptation. Overall, the top-ranked biosecurity categories were pig mixing; cleaning and disinfection; feed, water and bedding; and purchase of pigs or semen, while the lowest ranked categories were transport, equipment, animals (other than pigs and including wildlife) and humans. Cleaning and disinfection was ranked highest for both pathogens in the indoor setting, whereas pig mixing was highest for outdoor settings. Several (94/222, 42.3%) measures across all four settings were considered highly relevant. Measures with high disagreement between the respondents were uncommon (21/222, 9.6%), but more frequent for HEV compared to Salmonella spp. Conclusions The implementation of measures from multiple biosecurity categories was considered important to control Salmonella spp. and HEV on farms, and pig mixing activities, as well as cleaning and disinfection practices, were perceived as consistently more important than others. Similarities and differences in the prioritised biosecurity measures were identified between indoor and outdoor systems and pathogens. The study identified the need for further research especially for control of HEV and for biosecurity in outdoor farming.
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