Capture and subsurface storage of CO 2 is widely viewed as being a necessary component of any strategy to minimise and control the continued increase in average global temperatures. Existing oil and gas reservoirs can be re-used for carbon storage, providing a substantial fraction of the vast amounts of subsurface storage space that will be required for the implementation of carbon storage at an industrial scale. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) in depleted reservoirs aims to ensure subsurface containment, both to satisfy safety considerations, and to provide confidence that the containment will continue over the necessary timescales. Other technical issues that need to be addressed include the risk of unintended subsurface events, such as induced seismicity. Minimisation of these risks is key to building confidence in CCS technology, both in relation to financing/liability, and the development and maintenance of public acceptance. These factors may be of particular importance with regard to CCS projects involving depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs, where the mechanical effects of production activities must also be considered. Given the importance of caprock behaviour in this context, several previously published geomechanical caprock studies of depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs are identified and reviewed, comprising experimental and numerical studies of fourteen CCS pilot sites in depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs, in seven countries (
Soil liquefaction has been extensively investigated over the years with the aim to understand its fundamental mechanism and successfully remediate it. Despite the multi-directional nature of earthquakes, the vertical seismic component is largely neglected, as it is traditionally considered to be of much lower amplitude than the components in the horizontal plane. The 2010–2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence in New Zealand is a prime example that vertical accelerations can be of significant magnitude, with peak amplitudes well exceeding their horizontal counterparts. As research on this topic is very limited, there is an emerging need for a more thorough investigation of the vertical motion and its effect on soil liquefaction. As such, throughout this study, uni- and bidirectional finite-element analyses are carried out focusing on the influence of the input vertical motion on sand liquefaction. The effects of the frequency content of the input motion, of the depth of the deposit and of the hydraulic regime, using variable permeability, are investigated and exhaustively discussed. The results indicate that the usual assumption of linear elastic response when compressional waves propagate in a fully saturated sand deposit does not always hold true. Most importantly post-liquefaction settlements appear to be increased when the vertical component is included in the analysis.
In several recent earthquakes, high vertical ground accelerations accompanied by liquefaction were observed. Downhole records have also shown that large vertical accelerations do not necessarily originate from the source, but rather get amplified towards the ground surface. Given the advantages of energy-based interpretation of liquefaction triggering due to S-waves, this approach is used together with finite element analyses to investigate vertical motion amplification and ensuing liquefaction. The results show the importance of the post-resonance response cycles, while hysteretic damping based on total stresses, accounting for the water in the pores, is shown to be very low, explaining the observed amplification
The numerical dissipation characteristics of the Newmark and generalised-α time-integration schemes are investigated for P-wave propagation in a fully saturated level-ground sand deposit, where higher frequencies than those for S-waves are of concern. The study focuses on resonance, which has been shown to be of utmost importance for triggering liquefaction due to P-waves alone. The generalised-α scheme performs well, provided that the time-step has been carefully selected. Conversely, the dissipative Newmark method can excessively damp the response, changing radically the computed results. This implies that a computationally prohibiting small time-step would be required for Newmark to provide an accurate solution
The complexity of advanced constitutive models often dictates that their capabilities are only demonstrated in the context of model testing under controlled conditions. In the case of earthquake engineering and liquefaction in particular, this restriction is magnified by the difficulties in measuring field behaviour under seismic loading. In this paper, the well documented case of the Canterbury Earthquake Sequence in New Zealand, for which extensive field and laboratory data are available, is utilised to demonstrate the accuracy of a bounding surface plasticity model in fully-coupled finite element analyses. A strong motion station with manifestation of liquefaction and the second highest peak vertical ground acceleration during the Mw 6.2 February 2011 event is modelled. An empirical assessment predicted no liquefaction for this station, making this an interesting case for rigorous numerical modelling. The calibration of the model aims at capturing both the laboratory tests and the field measurements in a consistent manner. The characterisation of the ground conditions is presented, while, to specify the bedrock motion, the records of two stations without liquefaction are deconvolved and scaled to account for wave attenuation with distance. The numerical predictions are compared to both the horizontal and vertical acceleration records and other field observations, showing a remarkable agreement, also demonstrating that the high vertical accelerations can be attributed to compressional resonance. The results provide further insights into the underperformance of the simplified procedure. Keywords liquefaction; dynamics; field instrumentation; numerical modelling; bounding surface plasticity model; validation; simplified procedure; horizontal and vertical records List of notation A Plastic hardening modulus (BSPM) A d Dilatancy coefficient (BSPM) A 0 Dilatancy constantmaximum value of the dilatancy coefficient (BSPM) Κσ Overburden correction factor K 0 Coefficient of earth pressure at rest k Permeability k c b Parameter defining the size of the bounding surface k c d Parameter defining the size of the dilatancy surface k max Maximum permeability at the time of liquefaction k 0 Initial static permeability as measured in conventional laboratory testing Μ c c Stress ratio (q p′ ⁄) defining the critical state shear strength in triaxial compression Μ e c Stress ratio (q p′ ⁄) defining the critical state shear strength in q-p′ space in triaxial extension
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