Recebido em 1/2/06; aceito em 9/1/07; publicado na web em 2/7/07 REACTIVE OXYGEN AND NITROGEN SPECIES, ANTIOXIDANTS AND MARKERS OF OXIDATIVE DAMAGE IN HUMAN BLOOD: MAIN ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR THEIR DETERMINATION. We review here the chemistry of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, their biological sources and targets; particularly, biomolecules implicated in the redox balance of the human blood, and appraise the analytical methods available for their detection and quantification. Those biomolecules are represented by the enzymatic antioxidant defense machinery, whereas coadjutant reducing protection is provided by several low molecular weight molecules. Biomolecules can be injured by RONS yielding a large repertoire of oxidized products, some of which can be taken as biomarkers of oxidative damage. Their reliable determination is of utmost interest for their potentiality in diagnosis, prevention and treatment of maladies. Keywords: biomarkers of oxidative stress; oxidative and nitrosative stress; antioxidants. INTRODUÇÃO O balanço redox em líquidos biológicos, organelas, células ou tecidos é determinado pela presença de pares redox responsáveis pelo fluxo de elétrons. Esses sofrem freqüentes interconversões entre o estado reduzido e o oxidado. Alguns desses pares redox são interligados ("redox cycling"), outros constituem sistemas redox independentes. O balanço redox, na célula, relaciona-se à soma dos produtos do potencial de redução e da capacidade redutora de uma série de pares redox, acoplados, presentes. A capacidade re-dutora pode ser estimada pela determinação da concentração de espécies reduzidas em um par redox e, o potencial de redução, pelo emprego da Equação de Nernst 1. Em termos matemáticos, isto pode ser representado por: onde E i é o potencial de redução da semi-célula para um dado par redox e [espécie reduzida] i é a concentração das espécies reduzi-das em um par redox. Mudanças no balanço redox de sistemas biológicos podem cau-sar o estresse oxidativo 1. A intensidade e patogenicidade destes desequilíbrios vão depender, naturalmente, das concentrações lo-cais de espécies pró e antioxidantes, das constantes de velocidade de reação com moléculas-alvo e da compartimentalização celular destes processos, em que fatores de solubilidade e difusibilidade são determinantes 2. ESTRESSE OXIDATIVO A produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO), de nitrogê-nio (ERN), entre outras espécies reativas, é parte integrante do me-tabolismo humano e é observada em diversas condições fisiológi-cas. ERO e ERN têm importante função biológica, como na fago-citose, fenômeno em que essas espécies são produzidas para elimi-nar o agente agressor. Por outro lado, quando sua produção é exacer-bada, o organismo dispõe de um eficiente sistema antioxidante que consegue controlar e restabelecer o equilíbrio. O estresse oxidativo resulta do desequilíbrio entre o sistema pró e antioxidante 1,3 , com predomínio dos oxidantes, com dano conseqüente (Figura 1). A cé-lula, unidade da vida, é uma verdadeira usina de pró e antioxidan...
Fabry disease is an X-linked inborn error of glycosphingolipid catabolism due to deficient activity of α-galactosidase A that leads to accumulation of the enzyme substrates, mainly globotriaosylceramide (Gb3), in body fluids and lysosomes of many cell types. Some pathophysiology hypotheses are intimately linked to reactive species production and inflammation, but until this moment there is no in vivo study about it. Hence, the aim of this study was to investigate oxidative stress parameters, pro-inflammatory cytokines and Gb3 levels in Fabry patients under treatment with enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) and finally to establish a possible relation between them. We analyzed urine and blood samples of patients under ERT (n=14) and healthy age-matched controls (n=14). Patients presented decreased levels of antioxidant defenses, assessed by reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity and increased superoxide dismutase/catalase (SOD/CAT) ratio in erythrocytes. Concerning to the damage to biomolecules (lipids and proteins), we found that plasma levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and protein carbonyl groups and di-tyrosine (di-Tyr) in urine were increased in patients. The pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α were also increased in patients. Urinary Gb3 levels were positively correlated with the plasma levels of IL-6, carbonyl groups and MDA. IL-6 levels were directly correlated with di-Tyr and inversely correlated with GPx activity. This data suggest that pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant states occur, are correlated and seem to be induced by Gb3 in Fabry patients.
It is well established that the involvement of reactive species in the pathophysiology of several neurological diseases, including phenylketonuria (PKU), a metabolic genetic disorder biochemically characterized by elevated levels of phenylalanine (Phe). In previous studies, we verified that PKU patients (treated with a protein-restricted diet supplemented with a special formula not containing L-carnitine and selenium) presented high lipid and protein oxidative damage as well as a reduction of antioxidants when compared to the healthy individuals. Our goal in the present study was to evaluate the effect of Phe-restricted diet supplemented with L-carnitine and selenium, two well-known antioxidant compounds, on oxidative damage in PKU patients. We investigated various oxidative stress parameters in blood of 18 treated PKU patients before and after 6 months of supplementation with a special formula containing L-carnitine and selenium. It was verified that treatment with L-carnitine and selenium was capable of reverting the lipid peroxidation, measured by thiobarbituric acid-reactive species, and the protein oxidative damage, measured by sulfhydryl oxidation, to the levels of controls. Additionally, the reduced activity of glutathione peroxidase was normalized by the antioxidant supplementation. It was also verified a significant inverse correlation between lipid peroxidation and L-carnitine blood levels as well as a significant positive correlation between glutathione peroxidase activity and blood selenium concentration. In conclusion, our results suggest that supplementation of L-carnitine and selenium is important for PKU patients since it could help to correct the oxidative stress process which possibly contributes, at least in part, to the neurological symptoms found in phenylketonuric patients.
BackgroundLeishmaniosis, zoonosis that produces significant public health impacts, is caused by Leishmania infantum. Canines are the main domestic reservoir and, besides humans, other species of mammals could be infected when living in endemic areas. In this study, we detected equine Leishmania infantum infections in a canine visceral leishmaniosis transmission area and evaluated the clinical, haematological, biochemical and oxidative stress disorders. This study was conducted in Uruguaiana, Rio Grande do Sul, south of Brazil. Peripheral blood samples were collected from 124 animals (98 horses and 26 dogs) of both genders and several breeds after they underwent general and dermatologic examinations.ResultsTwenty five Leishmania infantum infected animals (20.16%), 14 horses and 11 dogs were detected by PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) amplification of kinetoplast DNA regions with 96% homology to Leishmania infantum (GenBank Accession No. L 19877.1). The clinical and haematological alterations of infected equines were skin lesions, nodules, lymphadenopathy, decreased levels in red blood cells and haematocrit (p < 0.05) and increase in urea serum concentration (p < 0.05), while CVL presented a decrease in red blood cells counts (p < 0.05), increase in lymphocytes (p < 0.05), and decrease in neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (p < 0.05). Oxidative stress markers of plasma protein carbonyl and plasma lipid peroxidation were not statistically significant (p > 0.05) in both species.ConclusionsTo our knowledge, this has been the first leishmaniosis equine survey performed in south of Brazil, caused by Leishmania infantum that were able to initially identify haematological and biochemical changes in the species, even in asymptomatic animals. We present evidence supporting those findings of haematological and biochemical changes could be related to infection. Surprisingly, the clinical manifestations of equine infection were similar to those found in canine visceral leishmaniosis. The equine population could be play an important role in the cycle of leishmaniosis in south Brazil and consequently indicates a great risk of public health. This evaluation of infected animals is important to establish the clinical and laboratory parameters involved in the disease progression.
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