Glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia) are critical for the central nervous system (CNS) in both physiological and pathological conditions. With this in mind, several studies have indicated that glial cells play key roles in the development and progression of CNS diseases. In this sense, gliotoxicity can be referred as the cellular, molecular, and neurochemical changes that can mediate toxic effects or ultimately lead to impairment of the ability of glial cells to protect neurons and/or other glial cells. On the other hand, glioprotection is associated with specific responses of glial cells, by which they can protect themselves as well as neurons, resulting in an overall improvement of the CNS functioning. In addition, gliotoxic events, including metabolic stresses, inflammation, excitotoxicity, and oxidative stress, as well as their related mechanisms, are strongly associated with the pathogenesis of neurological, psychiatric and infectious diseases. However, glioprotective molecules can prevent or improve these glial dysfunctions, representing glial cells-targeting therapies. Therefore, this review will provide a brief summary of types and functions of glial cells and point out cellular and molecular mechanisms associated with gliotoxicity and glioprotection, potential glioprotective molecules and their mechanisms, as well as gliotherapy. In summary, we expect to address the relevance of gliotoxicity and glioprotection in the CNS homeostasis and diseases.
A β-D-glucan was obtained from the edible mushroom Pholiota nameko by hot aqueous extraction and purification. NMR and methylation analyses of the purified fraction (GHW-PN, 1.46% yield) indicated the presence of a (1 → 3)-linked β-D-glucan, highly substituted (~27%) at O-6 by single units of β-D-Glcp or by (1 → 6)-β-D-Glcp fragments. The β-glucan (at 0.5, 1, and 2%) showed shear thinning behavior and when the concentration of the solution increased, there was an increase in apparent viscosity. The β-D-glucan presented gel-like behavior and thermal stability under a simulated pasteurization process, suggesting its potential as a thickening and gelling agent in products submitted to temperature variations. The β-D-glucan at 0.3, 1.0 and 3.0 mg kg significantly inhibited the inflammatory pain in 24.8, 56.9 and 82.3%, respectively, in the formalin-induced nociception in mice. The results pointed out that the β-D-glucan (GHW-PN) isolated from P. nameko presents potential application for the food industry or for medical purposes.
Agaricus brasiliensis was cultivated in vegetal substrates through submerged and solidstate fermentation. We aimed to determine which combination of fermentation methods and substrates would allow greater production of biomass and sterols for applications in nutraceutical foods. Six vegetal substrates were tested: wheat and malt grains, apple, grape and pineapple pomaces, and pineapple peel. Average ergosterol and total sterol levels ranged from 324 to 1,267 μg/g and from 701 to 2,659 μg/g, respectively. The extraction of ergosterol from biomass was optimized by experimental design. As a consequence, a simple and efficient extraction procedure was achieved. Seven sterols were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in fermented samples, and ergosterol and β-sitosterol were the most abundant. All substrates allowed a good development of A. brasiliensis mycelium with outstanding results for malt in submerged phase.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSThe vegetal substrates wheat grains, malt grains, apple pomace, grape pomace, pineapple pomace and pineapple peel promote a good development of Agaricus brasiliensis mycelium through solid-state fermentation and submerged fermentation techniques. Some of those substrates are discarded by the food industry. The results in this study indicate that vegetal residues from food industry could be effectively used as substrates to produce edible and medicinal mushrooms and sterols. Production of mycelium from the methods employed proved to be simple, fast, reproducible and efficient. Biomass production using residues from food industry adds value to these residues and at the same time solves disposal problems of agricultural by-products.
Agaricus brasiliensis is a medicinal mushroom traditionally employed in prevention and treatment of cancer, used as immunostimulant and as a source of antioxidants. We investigated the chemical composition of the mycelium produced by submerged (SF) and solid-state fermentation (SSF), using residues from food industry as substrates. After fermentation, antiradical activity and levels of antioxidants were enhanced, indicating that the micro-organism produces these metabolites. For myceliated substrate (mushroom mycelia grown around and into the substrate particles) obtained by SSF, phenolics ranged from 18.57 to 70.46 mg g À1 and flavonoids from 0.83 to 4.51 mg g À1 . For myceliated substrate obtained by SF, the variation was 27.19 to 66.99 mg g À1 and 0.75 to 5.34 mg g À1 for phenolics and flavonoids, respectively. The fatty acid profile determined by FT-ICR MS and UPLC-MS showed predominance of palmitic, linoleic, linolenic and oleic acids. Our findings indicated that mycelium has nutraceutical potential and can be incorporated in food supplements.
Sepsis is characterized by the host's dysregulated immune response to an infection followed by a potentially fatal organ dysfunction. Although there have been some advances in the treatment of sepsis, mainly focused on broad-spectrum antibiotics, mortality rates remain high, urging for the search of new therapies. Oxidative stress is one of the main features of septic patients, so antioxidants can be a good alternative treatment.
Agaricus brasiliensis
is a nutraceutical rich in bioactive compounds such as polyphenols and polysaccharides, exhibiting antioxidant, antitumor, and immunomodulatory activities. Here, we investigated the immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects of
A. brasilensis
aqueous extract in the cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) sepsis model. Our data showed that aqueous extract of
A. brasiliensis
reduced systemic inflammatory response and improved bacteria clearance and mice survival. In addition,
A brasiliensis
decreased the oxidative stress markers in serum, peritoneal cavity, heart and liver of septic animals, as well as ROS production (
in vitro
and
in vivo
) and
tert
-Butyl hydroperoxide-induced DNA damage in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy donors
in vitro
. In conclusion, the aqueous extract of
A. brasiliensis
was able to increase the survival of septic animals by a mechanism involving immunomodulatory and antioxidant protective effects.
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