G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are classically characterized as cell-surface receptors transmitting extracellular signals into cells. Here we show that central components of a GPCR signaling system comprised of the melatonin type 1 receptor (MT), its associated G protein, and β-arrestins are on and within neuronal mitochondria. We discovered that the ligand melatonin is exclusively synthesized in the mitochondrial matrix and released by the organelle activating the mitochondrial MT signal-transduction pathway inhibiting stress-mediated cytochrome release and caspase activation. These findings coupled with our observation that mitochondrial MT overexpression reduces ischemic brain injury in mice delineate a mitochondrial GPCR mechanism contributing to the neuroprotective action of melatonin. We propose a new term, "automitocrine," analogous to "autocrine" when a similar phenomenon occurs at the cellular level, to describe this unexpected intracellular organelle ligand-receptor pathway that opens a new research avenue investigating mitochondrial GPCR biology.

Background: It remains unclear why vasopressin induces greater antidiuresis through V2R than does oxytocin. Results: Vasopressin sustains cAMP signaling during V2R internalization, a process promoted by ␤-arrestins, and is halted by the retromer complex. Conclusion: This new noncanonical model of GPCR signaling differentiates the actions of vasopressin and oxytocin.Significance: This emerging model may explain the physiological bias between ligands.

Generation of cAMP by G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) and its termination is currently thought to occur exclusively at the plasma membrane of cells. Under existing models of receptor regulation, this signal is primarily restricted by desensitizationof the receptors through their binding to β-arrestins. However, this paradigm is not consistent with recent observations that the parathyroid hormone receptor type 1 (PTHR) continues to stimulate cAMP production even after receptor internalization, as β-arrestins are known to rapidly bind and internalize activated PTHR. Here we show that β-arrestin1 binding prolongs rather than terminates cAMP generation by PTHR, and that cAMP generation correlates with the persistence of arrestin-receptor complexes on endosomes. We found that PTHR signaling is instead turned-off by the retromer complex, which regulates traffic of internalized receptor from endosomes to the Golgi apparatus. Thus, binding by the retromer complex regulates sustained cAMP generation triggered by an internalized GPCR.

The cyclic AMP/protein kinase A (cAMP/PKA) pathway is one of the most common and versatile signal pathways in eukaryotic cells. A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) target PKA to specific substrates and distinct subcellular compartments providing spatial and temporal specificity for mediation of biological effects channeled through the cAMP/PKA pathway. In the immune system, cAMP is a potent negative regulator of T cell receptor-mediated activation of effector T cells (Teff) acting through a proximal PKA/Csk/Lck pathway anchored via a scaffold consisting of the AKAP Ezrin holding PKA, the linker protein EBP50, and the anchoring protein phosphoprotein associated with glycosphingolipid-enriched microdomains holding Csk. As PKA activates Csk and Csk inhibits Lck, this pathway in response to cAMP shuts down proximal T cell activation. This immunomodulating pathway in Teff mediates clinically important responses to regulatory T cell (Treg) suppression and inflammatory mediators, such as prostaglandins (PGs), adrenergic stimuli, adenosine, and a number of other ligands. A major inducer of T cell cAMP levels is PG E2 (PGE2) acting through EP2 and EP4 prostanoid receptors. PGE2 plays a crucial role in the normal physiological control of immune homeostasis as well as in inflammation and cancer immune evasion. Peripherally induced Tregs express cyclooxygenase-2, secrete PGE2, and elicit the immunosuppressive cAMP pathway in Teff as one tumor immune evasion mechanism. Moreover, a cAMP increase can also be induced by indirect mechanisms, such as intercellular transfer between T cells. Indeed, Treg, known to have elevated levels of intracellular cAMP, may mediate their suppressive function by transferring cAMP to Teff through gap junctions, which we speculate could also be regulated by PKA/AKAP complexes. In this review, we present an updated overview on the influence of cAMP-mediated immunoregulatory mechanisms acting through localized cAMP signaling and the therapeutical increasing prospects of AKAPs disruptors in T-cell immune function.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) participate in ubiquitous transmembrane signal transduction processes by activating heterotrimeric G proteins. In the current "canonical" model of GPCR signaling, arrestins terminate receptor signaling by impairing receptor-G-protein coupling and promoting receptor internalization. However, parathyroid hormone receptor type 1 (PTHR), an essential GPCR involved in bone and mineral metabolism, does not follow this conventional desensitization paradigm. β-Arrestins prolong G protein (G S )-mediated cAMP generation triggered by PTH, a process that correlates with the persistence of arrestin-PTHR complexes on endosomes and which is thought to be associated with prolonged physiological calcemic and phosphate responses. This presents an inescapable paradox for the current model of arrestin-mediated receptor-G-protein decoupling. Here we show that PTHR forms a ternary complex that includes arrestin and the Gβγ dimer in response to PTH stimulation, which in turn causes an accelerated rate of G S activation and increases the steady-state levels of activated G S , leading to prolonged generation of cAMP. This work provides the mechanistic basis for an alternative model of GPCR signaling in which arrestins contribute to sustaining the effect of an agonist hormone on the receptor.

Generation of cAMP by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and its termination is currently thought to occur exclusively at the plasma membrane of cells. Under existing models of receptor regulation, this signal is primarily restricted by desensitizationof the receptors through their binding to β-arrestins. However, this paradigm is not consistent with recent observations that the parathyroid hormone receptor type 1 (PTHR) continues to stimulate cAMP production even after receptor internalization, as β-arrestins are known to rapidly bind and internalize activated PTHR. Here we show that β-arrestin1 binding prolongs rather than terminates cAMP generation by PTHR, and that cAMP generation correlates with the persistence of arrestin-receptor complexes on endosomes. We found that PTHR signaling is instead turned-off by the retromer complex, which regulates traffic of internalized receptor from endosomes to the Golgi apparatus. Thus, binding by the retromer complex regulates sustained cAMP generation triggered by an internalized GPCR.The production of cAMP by activated GPCRs is traditionally thought to originate exclusively at the plasma membrane. In most receptors studied to date elevated cAMP is rapidly extinguished by mechanisms that desensitized activated receptors through phosphorylation by G protein receptor kinases, arrestin binding that prevents further G protein coupling and can recruit cAMP specific phosphodiesterases (PDE4D) to the plasma membrane 1 , and receptor endocytosis 2 , after which desensitized receptors are recycled to the Users may view, print, copy, download and text and data-mine the content in such documents, for the purposes of academic research, subject always to the full Conditions of use: http://www.nature.com/authors/editorial_policies/license.html#terms ¶ Corresponding author: Jean-Pierre Vilardaga, Ph. D., Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, E1357 Thomas E. Starzl Biochemical Science Tower, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, Tel: (412) 648 2055, Fax: (412) 648 1945, jpv@pitt.edu. Note: Supplementary information is available on the Nature Chemical Biology website. Competing interests statementThe authors have no competing financial interests to disclose. Author contributionsT.N.F performed most of the experiments with the support of V.L.W., J.A., D.S.W., S.F., and T.J.G.; J.-P.V. designed and supervised the experiments; J.-P.V. and T.N.F. analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript; all authors discussed the results and commented on the manuscript. HHS Public Access Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptAuthor Manuscript Author Manuscript plasma membrane or trafficked to lysosomes for degradation 3 . In either case, production of cAMP is not thought to continue after GPCR internalization. However, recent studies have shown that cAMP production mediated by the PTHR in response to PTH or PTH analogs continues even after internalization of the activated receptor 4 , 5 . Together with recent work on the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor 6 , 7 , these observati...

Parathyroid hormone (PTH), the major calcium-regulating hormone, and norepinephrine (NE), the principal neurotransmitter of sympathetic nerves, regulate bone remodeling by activating distinct cellsurface G protein-coupled receptors in osteoblasts: the parathyroid hormone type 1 receptor (PTHR) and the β 2 -adrenergic receptor (β 2 AR), respectively. These receptors activate a common cAMP/ PKA signal transduction pathway mediated through the stimulatory heterotrimeric G protein. Activation of β 2 AR via the sympathetic nervous system decreases bone formation and increases bone resorption. Conversely, daily injection of PTH (1-34), a regimen known as intermittent (i)PTH treatment, increases bone mass through the stimulation of trabecular and cortical bone formation and decreases fracture incidences in severe cases of osteoporosis. Here, we show that iPTH has no osteoanabolic activity in mice lacking the β 2 AR. β 2 AR deficiency suppressed both iPTH-induced increase in bone formation and resorption. We showed that the lack of β 2 AR blocks expression of iPTH-target genes involved in bone formation and resorption that are regulated by the cAMP/PKA pathway. These data implicate an unexpected functional interaction between PTHR and β 2 AR, two G protein-coupled receptors from distinct families, which control bone formation and PTH anabolism.bone anabolism | bone cells

Deglycosylated FSH is known to trigger poor Galphas coupling while efficiently binding its receptor. In the present study, we tested the possibility that a deglycosylated equine LH (eLHdg) might be able to selectively activate beta-arrestin-dependent signaling. We compared native eLH to an eLH derivative [i.e. truncated eLHbeta (Delta121-149) combined with asparagine56-deglycosylated eLHalpha (eLHdg)] previously reported as an antagonist of cAMP accumulation at the FSH receptor (FSH-R). We confirmed that, when used in conjunction with FSH, eLHdg acted as an antagonist for cAMP accumulation in HEK-293 cells stably expressing the FSH-R. Furthermore, when used alone at concentrations up to 1 nM, eLHdg had no detectable agonistic activity on cAMP accumulation, protein kinase A activity or cAMP-responsive element-dependent transcriptional activity. At higher concentrations, however, a weak agonistic action was observed with eLHdg, whereas eLH led to robust responses whatever the concentration. Both eLH and eLHdg triggered receptor internalization and led to beta-arrestin recruitment. Both eLH and eLHdg triggered ERK and ribosomal protein (rp) S6 phosphorylation at 1 nM. The depletion of endogenous beta-arrestins had only a partial effect on eLH-induced ERK and rpS6 phosphorylation. In contrast, ERK and rpS6 phosphorylation was completely abolished at all time points in beta-arrestin-depleted cells. Together, these results show that eLHdg has the ability to preferentially activate beta-arrestin-dependent signaling at the FSH-R. This finding provides a new conceptual and experimental framework to revisit the physiological meaning of gonadotropin structural heterogeneity. Importantly, it also opens a field of possibilities for the development of selective modulators of gonadotropin receptors.