Tumor cell invasion through the extracellular matrix is accompanied by the formation of invadopodia, which are actin-rich protrusions at the adherent surface of cells at sites of extracellular matrix degradation. Using the invasive human melanoma cell line LOX as a model system, we demonstrate that the ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6) GTPase is an important regulator of invadopodia formation and cell invasion. We show that ARF6 localizes to invadopodia of LOX cells. Sustained activation of ARF6 significantly enhances the invasive capacity of melanoma as well as breast tumor cell lines, whereas dominant negative ARF6 abolishes basal cell invasive capacity as well as invasion induced by growth factors. Furthermore, using biochemical assays, we show that enhanced invasive capacity is accompanied by the activation of endogenous ARF6. Finally, we provide evidence that ARF6-enhanced melanoma cell invasion depends on the activation of the extracellular signalregulated kinase (ERK), and that the ARF6 GTPase cycle regulates ERK activation. This study describes a vital role for ARF6 in melanoma cell invasion and documents a link between ARF6-mediated signaling and ERK activation.A n important characteristic of metastasizing cells is their ability to degrade and invade the extracellular matrix. Matrix degradation and cell invasion also occur during normal physiological processes, such as development and differentiation (1). The process of cell invasion is tightly regulated by a number of cell-signaling proteins, such as tyrosine kinases, Ras-related GTPases, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family proteins (2, 3). As an invading cell moves through the extracellular matrix, it extends actin-rich membrane protrusions into the matrix. These protrusions, called invadopodia, contain a number of actin-binding proteins and recruit various proteinases, including matrix metalloproteinases and serine proteases, which degrade matrix proteins at sites of cell invasion (4, 5). Studies on breast cancer and melanoma progression have shown that there appears to be a direct correlation between the ability of cells to form invadopodia and degrade matrix and the cells' invasive potential as measured by in vitro and in vivo assays for motility and invasion (4, 6, 7).ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6) is a member of the Ras superfamily of small GTPases, and like most GTPases, ARF6 alternates between its active GTP-bound and inactive GDP-bound conformations. The ARF6 GTPase cycle has been shown to regulate endosome membrane trafficking, regulated exocytosis, and actin remodeling at the cell surface (8). These processes are important for controlling cell shape changes and can impinge on the acquisition of an invasive phenotype. In fact, previous work in our laboratory has shown that ARF6 promotes cell migration in epithelial cells by facilitating adherens junction disassembly through its effect on endocytosis (of adhesion molecules) and by inducing peripheral actin rearrangements (9). In addition, Santy and Casanova (10) have shown that...
Initiation of polyomavirus DNA replication in eukaryotic cells requires the participation of the viral early protein T antigen, cellular replication factors, and DNA polymerases. The human polyomavirus JC virus (JCV) is the etiologic agent of the fatal demyelinating disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in immunocompromised individuals. This virus exhibits a narrow host range and a tissue specificity that restricts its replication to glial cells of the central nervous system. Restriction of viral DNA replication due to species specificity of the DNA polymerase, coupled with glial cell-specific transcription of the viral early promoter, is thought to account for the brain-specific replication of JCV. In this report we demonstrate that overexpression of Pur ␣, a protein which binds to single-stranded DNA in a sequence-specific manner, suppresses replication of JCV DNA in glial cells. Results from footprinting studies indicate that Pur ␣ and T antigen share a common binding region spanning the single-stranded ori sequence of JCV. Further, T antigen was capable of stimulating the association of Pur ␣ with the ori sequence in a band shift assay. Whereas no evidence for simultaneous binding of Pur ␣ and T antigen to single-stranded DNA has been observed, results from coimmunoprecipitation and Western blot (immunoblot) analyses of proteins derived from cells producing JCV T antigen indicate a molecular association of JCV T antigen and Pur ␣. The binding of Pur ␣ to the single-stranded ori sequence and its association with T antigen suggest that Pur ␣ interferes with the activity of T antigen and/or other regulatory proteins to exert its negative effect on JCV DNA replication. The importance of these findings in the reactivation of JCV in the latently infected individual under immunosuppressed conditions is discussed.
Myelin basic protein (MBP) is a major component of the myelin sheath whose production is developmentally controlled during myelinogenesis. Earlier studies have indicated that programmed expression of the MBP gene is regulated at the level of transcription. Evidently, the MB1 regulatory motif located between nucleotides -14 to -50 plays an important role in transcription of the MBP promoter in both in vivo systems. The MB1 element contains binding sites for the activator protein MEF-1/Pur alpha and the repressor protein MyEF-2. In this study we use bandshift assays with purified MEF-1/Pur alpha and MyEF-2 and demonstrate that binding of MyEF-2 to its target sequence is inhibited by MEF-1/Pur alpha. Under similar conditions, MyEF-2 enhances the association of MEF-1/Pur alpha with MB1 DNA. MEF-1/Pur alpha binds to MB1 in mono- and dimeric forms. Inclusion of MyEF-2 in the binding reaction increases the dimeric association of MEF-1/Pur alpha with the MB1 sequence. The use of MEF-1/Pur alpha variants in the bandshift assay suggests that two distinct regions of this protein may be involved in its binding to the MB1 sequences, and its ability to block MyEF-2 interaction with the MB1 sequence. Based on previous studies on the programmed expression of MEF-1/Pur alpha and MyEF-2 during myelination and the current findings on their interplay for binding to the MB1 motif, a model is proposed for their involvement in transcriptional regulation of the MBP gene during the course of brain development.
The single-stranded DNA and RNA binding protein, Puralpha, has recently received special attention as this protein, by associating with the specific nucleotide sequence (GGN repeats) and/or several important cellular and viral proteins regulates crucial biological events such as transcription, replication, and cell proliferation. In this study, we focused on the promoter activity of the Puralpha upstream DNA sequence and demonstrated that the sequence spanning 6,000 nucleotides upstream of the Puralpha transcription start site has promoter activity in various cell types. Results from promoter deletion studies revealed that this region encompasses various regulatory motifs which differentially participate in the promoter activity of Puralpha in various cells. The transcription start site of Puralpha is surrounded by the GA/GC-rich sequence which exhibits the ability to interact with Puralpha, suggesting a role for autoregulation of Puralpha transcription. Results from co-transfection studies revealed that ectopic expression of Puralpha reduced transcriptional activity of the Puralpha promoter and the region located between amino acid residues, 1-85 of Puralpha is important for the observed autoregulatory event. The regulatory protein of the human neurotropic virus, JCV, T-antigen, which interacts with Puralpha, decreased transcriptional activity of the Puralpha promoter. Co-expression of JCV T-antigen and Puralpha had no significant effect on the suppression of Puralpha gene transcription by either protein. The importance of this finding in light of earlier results showing down regulation of Puralpha during JCV infection of glial cells is discussed.
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