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We view these results as an indication that virtual environments could provide helpful standard tools for assessing age effects on the main aspects of episodic memory.

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The dual-task paradigm was used to show how visuospatial working memory and the phonological loop are involved in processing scientific texts and illustrations presented via computer. In experiment 1, two presentation formats were compared: text-only and text-with-illustrations. With a concurrent tapping task, the beneficial effect of illustrations disappeared, while a concurrent articulatory task impaired performance similarly in both presentation formats. An analysis of individual differences revealed that this pattern of results was present in high, but not low spatial span subjects. These results support the selective involvement of visuospatial working memory in processing illustrated texts. In Experiment 2, the text-only presentation format was compared to an illustrations-only format. The concurrent articulatory task selectively impaired text-only processing, compared with processing illustrations-only. In addition, this pattern of results was found for high, but not low digit span subjects. These results suggest that individual differences define the extent to which the two subsystems of working memory are involved in learning from multimedia. These two subsystems would be mainly involved in the maintenance of a visual trace of illustrations and of a verbatim representation of linguistic information respectively, these representations being the basis for higher-level comprehension processes.

The paper investigates the involvement of verbal and visuo-spatial working memory during the processing of spatial texts via a dual-task paradigm. Subjects were presented with three texts describing locations from a route perspective, and had either to imagine themselves moving along a route in surroundings or to rehearse verbal information. Concurrently they had to perform a spatial tapping task, an articulatory task, or no secondary task. Performance on a verification test used to assess the product of comprehension showed that the concurrent tapping task impaired performance in the imagery instructions group but not in the repetition instructions group, and caused the beneficial effect of imagery instructions to vanish. This result was not observed with the articulatory task, where interference effects were similar in both instructions groups. Performance on the concurrent tasks confirmed the pattern obtained with the verification test. In addition, results seem partly dependent on the capacity of spatial working memory as measured by the Corsi Blocks Test. We argue that these results clarify the processes of the construction of a spatial mental model, and confirm that the visuo-spatial working memory is involved in mental imagery.

Grounded cognition proposes that memory shares processing resources with sensorimotor systems. The aim of the present study was to show that motor simulation participates in the conceptual representation of manipulable objects in long-term memory. In two experiments, lists of manipulable and nonmanipulable objects were presented. Participants were instructed to memorize the items while adopting different postures. In the control condition, they had to keep their hands at rest in front of them. In the interference condition, participants had to keep their hands crossed behind their back to make their hands less free for action. After each list, participants had to perform first a distractive task, and then an oral free recall. The results showed that the interfering posture produced a specific decrease in the recall of manipulable objects, but not of nonmanipulable ones. This decrease was similar when the items were presented as pictures (Experiment 1) or as words (Experiment 2), thus excluding a purely visual effect. These results provide strong evidence that the motor simulation plays a role in the memory trace of the object.

This article argues that conducting experiments involving the ability to control and even manipulate the cognitive load in working memory (WM; storage and or processing load) should make it possible to identify the processes involved during the integration of information coming from multiple sources. Some experiments using the dual-task paradigm are reviewed, and an original experiment using complex multimedia material is presented. Overall, the experiments show that even in cases where subjects have to navigate between different types of information and have to integrate various items of information, the verbal storage component of WM is important in permitting comprehension. Visuospatial WM is in addition involved as soon as visuospatial processing is required. Storage of verbal information does not however depend on the modality of presentation and the classical modality effect appears to depend on individual differences. Some theoretical and practical implications of these results are drawn.In the context of the development of new technologies for the communication of information, multimedia systems are developing quickly and raise many questions, especially with reference to education. A multimedia system can be defined as a system which requires the integration of different types of information: verbal information presented visually or auditorily (e.g. words, sentences or short texts), pictorial information presented visually in a static or dynamic way (illustrations, photographs, diagrams) and sound information. In addition, systems that allow users to navigate between different sources of information through the use of hypertext structures are often considered to be multimedia systems, even if only one type of information is provided (for example, verbal information presented visually). To what extent does the use of such systems make a positive contribution to the learning process? There is a strong temptation to simply assume that using various information presentation formats, using realistic and vivid presentations and providing multiple possibilities for interaction with a learning system generally results in better learning. The acquisition of information via any technical system remains, however, subject to the constraints of human information processing. Existing models of multimedia comprehension originate from text comprehension models (e.g. Schnotz, 2005) or from research into the effect of illustrations (e.g. Mayer, 2001). One core concept APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

This study investigates the development of landmark and route knowledge in complex wayfinding situations. It focuses on how children (aged 6, 8, and 10 years) and young adults (n = 79) indicate, recognize, and bind landmarks and directions in both verbal and visuo-spatial tasks after learning a virtual route. Performance in these tasks is also related to general verbal and visuo-spatial abilities as assessed by independent standardized tests (attention, working memory, perception of direction, production and comprehension of spatial terms, sentences and stories). The results first show that the quantity and quality of landmarks and directions produced and recognized by participants in both verbal and visuo-spatial tasks increased with age. In addition, an increase with age was observed in participants’ selection of decisional landmarks (i.e., landmarks associated with a change of direction), as well as in their capacity to bind landmarks and directions. Our results support the view that children first acquire landmark knowledge, then route knowledge, as shown by their late developing ability to bind knowledge of directions and landmarks. Overall, the quality of verbal and visuo-spatial information in participants’ spatial representations was found to vary mostly with their visuo-spatial abilities (attention and perception of directions) and not with their verbal abilities. Interestingly, however, when asked to recognize landmarks encountered during the route, participants show an increasing bias with age toward choosing a related landmark of the same category, regardless of its visual characteristics, i.e., they incorrectly choose the picture of another fountain. The discussion highlights the need for further studies to determine more precisely the role of verbal and visuo-spatial knowledge and the nature of how children learn to represent and memorize routes.