Theoretical views regarding the cognitive processes of summarization are reviewed and some of the specific cognitive operations involved in summarization are considered. In particular, we argue that the cognitive demands of summarization are dependent upon the qualities of the text to be summarized, the whereabouts of the text during summarization, and the type of summary to be produced. To this latter point, a distinction is made between a summary written for oneself (writer-based) and a summary written for others (reader-based). Developmental differences among summarizers are then described in terms of awareness of task demands, sensitivity to importance, and ability to condense material and select and create topic sentences. Finally, instructional suggestions are made for how the beginning summarizer might be taught to produce more sophisticated summaries.
Small firms contribute significantly to the UK economy, but most research into learning and work features the experience of large organisations. This article focuses on learning and work in small organisations. An interpretive framework relating to organisational learning is derived from the literature. Data on learning in small firms that internationalise are analysed to assess the extent to which models of organisational learning are applicable to the context and challenges they face. The article suggests that the large firm model of learning is inappropriate; the distinctive culture and communication systems of small organisations require different approaches to the acquisition, transmission and interpretation of knowledge. Tacit knowledge, developed through informal learning, is a priority and learning through local business networks is more important than participation in formal programmes. Advocacy of human resource development (HRD) practices based on conventional theories of organisational learning, therefore, may hinder rather than encourage performance in small organisations.
This article examines the behaviours associated with managerial coaching and assesses the implications for leadership theory. Survey data from 521 line managers are analysed to: (i) identify the behaviours associated with managerial coaching, (ii) examine factors that affect the propensity of managers to undertake coaching and (iii) discuss the implications of the manager as coach role for leadership theory and practice. First, the analysis indicates that workplace coaching is distinct from specialized coaching practices. Second, demographic characteristics of individual managers, such as their age, experience or level of management qualification are unlikely to affect their propensity to undertake managerial coaching. However, leader-team member relationships (leader-member exchange) and occupational self-efficacy (OSE) are predictive of managerial coaching behaviours. Third, managerial coaching challenges traditional leader-centric models of leadership and requires an acknowledgement of reciprocity, collaborative 'meaning-making' and a diminished 'distance' between leaders and team members.
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