Following the discovery in 2015 of the variegated squirrel bornavirus 1 (VSBV-1) in fatal encephalitis cases among exotic squirrel breeders and a zoo animal caretaker in Germany, a case definition was developed. It was employed during trace-back animal trade investigations and sero-epidemiological studies among breeders and zoo animal caretakers of holdings with VSBV-1 infected squirrels. During the investigation, two possible human cases who had died of encephalitis were identified retrospectively among the squirrel breeders. Moreover, one probable human case was detected among the breeders who had a positive memory T-cell response to VSBV-1 antigen and antibodies against VSBV-1. The low rate of seropositivity found among living persons in risk groups that handle exotic squirrels privately or at zoos may reflect rareness of exposure to VSBV-1 during animal contact, a high lethality of infection or a combination of these factors. As a precaution against human exposure, testing of exotic squirrels for VSBV-1 infection and/or avoiding direct contact with exotic squirrels in zoos and private holdings is strongly advised.
The variegated squirrel bornavirus 1 (VSBV-1) is a recently discovered emerging viral pathogen which causes severe and eventually fatal encephalitis in humans after contact to exotic squirrels in private holdings and zoological gardens. Understanding the VSBV-1 epidemiology is crucial to develop, implement and maintain surveillance strategies for detection and control of animal and human infections. Based on a newly detected human encephalitis case in a zoological garden, epidemiological squirrel trade investigations and molecular phylogeny analyses of VSBV-1 with temporal and spatial resolution were conducted. Phylogenetic analyses indicated a recent emergence of VSBV-1 in European squirrel holdings and several animal-animal and animal-human spill-over infections. Virus phylogeny linked to squirrel trade analysis showed the introduction of a common ancestor of the known current VSBV-1 isolates into captive exotic squirrels in Germany, most likely by Prevost's squirrels (Callosciurus prevostii). The links of the animal trade between private breeders and zoos, the likely introduction pathway of VSBV-1 into Germany, and the role of a primary animal distributor were elucidated. In addition, a seroprevalence study was performed among zoo animal caretakers from VSBV-1 affected zoos. No seropositive healthy zoo animal caretakers were found, underlining a probable high-case fatality rate of human VSBV-1 infections. This study illustrates the network and health consequences of uncontrolled wild pet trading as well as the benefits of molecular epidemiology for elucidation and future prevention of infection chains by zoonotic viruses. To respond to emerging zoonotic diseases rapidly, improved regulation and control strategies are urgently needed.
On a global scale, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses a serious threat to the health of the human population. Not only humans can be infected, but also their companion animals. The antibody status of 115 cats and 170 dogs, originating from 177 German households known to have been SARS-CoV-2 positive, was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the results were combined with information gathered from a questionnaire that was completed by the owner(s) of the animals. The true seroprevalences of SARS-CoV-2 among cats and dogs were 42.5% (95% CI 33.5–51.9) and 56.8% (95% CI 49.1–64.4), respectively. In a multivariable logistic regression accounting for data clustered in households, for cats, the number of infected humans in the household and an above-average contact intensity turned out to be significant risk factors; contact with humans outside the household was a protective factor. For dogs, on the contrary, contact outside the household was a risk factor, and reduced contact, once the human infection was known, was a significant protective factor. No significant association was found between reported clinical signs in animals and their antibody status, and no spatial clustering of positive test results was identified.
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) caused a pandemic of unprecedented extent. Beside humans, a number of animal species can be infected, however, in some species differing susceptibilities were observed depending on the virus variant. Here, we serologically investigated cats and dogs living in households with human COVID-19 patients. The study was conducted during the transition period from delta as the dominating variant of concern (VOC) to omicron (BA.1/BA.2) to investigate the frequency of virus transmission of both VOCs from infected owners to their pets. The animal sera were tested by surrogate virus neutralization tests (sVNT) using either the original receptor-binding domain (RBD), enabling the detection of antibodies against the delta variant, or an omicron-specific RBD. Of the 290 canine samples, 20 tested positive by sVNT, but there were marked differences between the sampling time, and, related thereto, the virus variants, the dogs had contact to. While in November 2021 infected owners led to 50% seropositive dogs (18/36), only 0.8% (2/254) of animals with household contacts to SARS-CoV-2 between December 2021 and April 2022 tested positive. In all cases, the positive reaction was recorded against the original RBD. For cats, a similar pattern was seen, as in November 2021 38.1% (16/42) tested positive and between December 2021 and March 2022 only 5.0% (10/199). The markedly reduced ratio of seropositive animals during the period of omicron circulation suggests a considerably lower susceptibility of dogs and cats to this VOC. To examine the effect of BA.2, BA.4 and BA.5 omicron subvariants, sera taken in the second and third quarter of 2022 from randomly selected cats were investigated. 2.3% (11/372) tested seropositive and all of them showed a stronger reaction against the original RBD, further supporting the assumption of a lower susceptibility of companion animals to the omicron VOC.
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