Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), together with MD-2, binds bacterial endotoxins (E) with high affinity, triggering formation of the activated homodimer (E-MD-2-TLR4)2. Activated TLR4 induces intracellular signaling leading to activation of transcription factors that result in cytokine and chemokine production and initiation of inflammatory and immune responses. TLR4 also responds to endogenous ligands called danger associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Increased sensitivity to infection and a variety of immune pathologies have been associated with either too little or too much TLR4 activation. We review here the molecular mechanisms of TLR4 activation (agonism) or inhibition (antagonism) by small organic molecules of both natural and synthetic origin. The role of co-receptors MD-2 and CD14 in the TLR4 modulation process is also discussed. Recent achievements in the field of chemical TLR4 modulation are reviewed, with special focus on non-classical TLR4 ligands with a chemical structure different from lipid A.

The identification of the bacterial endotoxin receptors for innate immunity, most notably TLR4 (Toll-like receptor 4), has sparked great interest in therapeutic manipulation of the innate immune system. In the present mini-review, several natural and synthetic molecules that modulate the TLR4-mediated LPS (lipopolysaccharide) signalling in animals and humans are considered, and their mechanisms of action are discussed. The process of LPS sensing and signal amplification in humans is based on the sequential action of specific receptors situated in the extracellular side of the innate immunity cells, which bind and transfer LPS to TLR4: LBP (LPS-binding protein), CD14, MD-2 (myeloid differentiation protein 2). We classified the compounds active on TLR4 pathway depending on the specific molecular targets (LPS, LBP, CD14, MD-2 or TLR4). Small molecules developed by our group are described that inhibit LPS-stimulated TLR4 activation by selectively targeting the LPS-CD14 interaction. These compounds have an interesting antiseptic shock, anti-inflammatory and anti-neuropathic pain activity in vivo.

Monosaccharide lipid A mimetics composed by a glucosamine core linked to two fatty acid chains and bearing one or two phosphates have been synthesized. While compounds 1 and 2, with one phosphate group, were practically inactive in inhibiting LPS-induced TLR4 signaling and cytokine production in HEK-blue™ cells and murine macrophages, compound 3 with two phosphates was found to be active in efficiently inhibiting TLR4 signal in both cell types. The direct interaction of molecule 3 with MD-2 co-receptor has been investigated by means of NMR and molecular modeling/docking analysis. This compound also interacts directly with CD14 receptor, stimulating its internalization by endocytosis. Experiments on macrophages show that the effect on CD14 reinforces the activity on MD-2.TLR4, because compound 3 activity is higher when CD14 is important for TLR4 signaling i,e, at low LPS concentration. The dual MD-2 and CD14 targeting, accompanied by good solubility in water and lack of toxicity, suggests the use of monosaccharide 3 as a lead compound to develop drugs directed against TLR4-related syndromes.

A thiophene-based donor-acceptor phenothiazine dye has been functionalized with a peripheral glucose unit (PTZ-GLU) to bust its affinity to water and enhance dye-sensitized photogeneration of hydrogen. Compared to the corresponding alkyl derivative (PTZ-ALK), as well as the common hydrophilic triethylene glycol substitution (PTZ-TEG), the sugar derivative shows a lower contact angle; PTZ-GLU performed twice more efficient than PTZ-TEG in the photogeneration of hydrogen in terms of evolved gas and turnover number.

The structure-activity relationship was investigated in a series of synthetic TLR4 antagonists formed by a glucosamine core linked to two phosphate esters and two linear carbon chains. Molecular modeling showed that the compounds with 10, 12, and 14 carbons chains are associated with higher stabilization of the MD-2/TLR4 antagonist conformation than in the case of the C16 variant. Binding experiments with human MD-2 showed that the C12 and C14 variants have higher affinity than C10, while the C16 variant did not interact with the protein. The molecules, with the exception of the C16 variant, inhibited the LPS-stimulated TLR4 signal in human and murine cells, and the antagonist potency mirrored the MD-2 affinity calculated from in vitro binding experiments. Fourier-transform infrared, nuclear magnetic resonance, and small angle X-ray scattering measurements suggested that the aggregation state in aqueous solution depends on fatty acid chain lengths and that this property can influence TLR4 activity in this series of compounds.

Polo Scientifico e Tecnologico (PTS), CNR, via Fantoli 16/15, Two simple approaches to build up micropatterned functionalized polymer films are reported here. Both of them are based on the formation of porous films consisting of two-dimensionally ordered void structures, produced by evaporation of a polymer solution in the presence of humidity. In the first approach, we utilize an amino-terminated linear polystyrene to fabricate honeycomb structured films in which the cavities are enriched with amino groups that preserve their chemical reactivity. This allows, in principle, to obtain films with different surface functionality by simply changing the chain-end of the polymer used. In the second approach, we synthesize a luminescent chain-ended polystyrene to show how the honeycomb structures can be easily transformed, by a thermal treatment, into flat micropatterned fluorescent films. Both the microporous and the flat micropatterned films resulting from this study are attractive materials since the chemical functions distributed on their surface can further react with other molecules to provide a more complex array suitable for biological tests.

A strategy for creating a general-purposes surface functionalization platform is reported, based on direct attachment of phosphate groups onto hydroxylated surfaces and subsequent formation of a terpyridine-based monolayer. Such a platform is suitable for the construction, onto technologically relevant oxide surfaces, of single- and multilayer structures of interest in technological applications. In particular, the paper describes the successful attachment of 4-(2,2':6',2''-terpyridine-4-yl)benzenephosphonic acid (1, PPTP) onto a SiO(2) surface previously functionalized by means of Zr-phosphate groups. Two alternative anchoring strategies of the PPTP were explored: (i) a direct one-step way, implying no protection of terpyridinic functionality, and (ii) a three-step way, implying protection and successive deprotection of this group. It was found that, in the first case, the PPTP ligand anchoring to the Zr-containing phosphate layer takes place by means of terpyridinic group. At variance of this, in the second case, due to the protection of the terpyridinic functionality, the anchoring process takes place through the phosphonic group, making the terpyridinic moiety available for further reactions, i.e., multilayer constructs. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) were used to study the functionalized surfaces, providing information on coverage, chemical structure, and stoichiometry of the various functionalized layers and, among the others, clear evidence of the PPTP linkage and orientation.

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