Several studies investigated soil disturbances caused on skid trails by forest logging. However, there is still a lack of knowledge about the severity and the distance of disturbances along both sides from the trails. The aims of this study were: i) to investigate the changes in physical and chemical properties of soil along the sides of skidding trails; ii) to measure the effects of soil compaction on of maple seedlings growth. Two levels of trail gradient (< 20% and >20 %), four levels of traffic frequency (3, 8, 15, and 30 passes) and four distance buffer strip zones (0.5 m intervals from 0 to 2 m in distance) on both sides of skid trail edges were analyzed. Each treatment included three replicate plots. In order to investigate the effect of compaction on seedlings emergence and growth, maple seeds were sown after logging. The results highlighted significant changes in physical and chemical properties of soil for each traffic frequency in the closest buffer strip (from 0 to 0.5 m from the skid trail edges). The largest changes in soil properties were identified at 0.5 m distance zones for a slope gradient > 20% after 3, 8, 15, and 30 skidding cycles. The highest changes were recorded on slope category >20%. The higher the soil compaction the lower the germination rate, root length, and stem height of seedlings.
Turmeric powder treated by cold atmospheric-pressure plasma (CAPP) at 25 kV for various times of 3, 5 and 7 min was examined for microbial load, essential oil profile, colour parameters, total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, antioxidant activity and microstructure. CAPP treatment caused a reduction of approximately 1.5 log CFU g −1 in aerobic viable cell count of turmeric powder, which was most pronounced during the first 3 min of the treatment. The inactivation kinetic was fitted to the Weibull model with R 2 of 0.9913 and RMSE of 0.0641. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of essential oils identified twelve different components for turmeric powder of which 1,8-Cineole, α-Terpinolene and trans-Caryophyllene were lost and ar-Turmerone and α-Zingiberene experienced considerable increases after plasma treatment. The double-edged effect of plasma treatment was also observed on bioactivity. Scanning electron microscopy showed formation of super-agglomerates in plasma-treated samples due probably to coalescence of the granules with plasma-damaged walls.
Summary
Fire‐retardant coatings could be one option for providing enhanced protection to buildings during a wildfire, particularly when applied to combustible siding and in under‐eave areas. Limited studies have been conducted on their effectiveness but maintaining adequate performance after weathering has been questioned. This paper reports on a study evaluating the effect of natural weathering on the performance of intumescent‐type fire‐retardant coatings. The main concerns were (a) the reduction of ignition resistance of the coating after weathering and (b) the coating might contribute as a combustible fuel and assist the fire growth after weathering. This study evaluated the performance of 3 intumescent coatings that were exposed to natural weathering conditions for up to 12 months. A bench‐scale evaluation using a cone calorimeter was used to evaluate the performance of the coatings at 3 heat flux levels (30, 50, and 70 kW/m2). Our results showed that weathering exposure reduced the effectiveness of fire protection of intumescent coatings, but the weathered coatings did not act as additional fuels. Weathering orientation showed much less effect on the performance of intumescent coatings in comparison to other parameters. There was statistical evidence that weathering duration, heat flux level, and coating type affected the combustion properties.
Forest operations often enhance runoff and soil loss in roads and skid trails, where cut slopes and fill slopes are the most important source of sediment. This study evaluated the effectiveness of four erosion control treatments applied to cut slope and fill slope segments of forest roads of different ages in the Hyrcanian forest in northern Iran. The treatment combinations, each replicated three times, included four classes of mulch cover (bare soil [BS], wood chips cover [WCH], sawdust cover [SC], and rice straw cover [RSC]), two levels of side slope (cut slope and fill slope), two levels of side slope gradient (20–25% and 40–45%), and three levels of road age (three, 10 and 20 years after construction). Mulch cover treatments significantly reduced average surface runoff volume and sediment yield compared to BS. Regardless of erosion control treatment, greater surface runoff volume and soil loss under natural rainfall occurred on steeper slope gradients in all road age classes and decreased with increasing road age on both slope gradients. On cut slopes, average runoff and soil loss from the plots covered with WCH (17.63 l per plot, 2.43 g m–2) was lower than from those covered with SC (22.81 l per plot, 3.50 g m–2), which was lower than from those covered with RSC (29.13 l per plot, 4.41 g m–2 and BS (34.61 l per plot, 4.94 g m–2). On fill slopes, average runoff and soil loss from the plots covered with WCH (14.13 l per plot, 1.99 g m–2) was lower than from plots covered with SC (20.01 l per plot, 3.23 g m–2), which was lower than from plots covered with RSC (24.52 l per plot, 4.06 g m–2) and BS (29.03 l per plot, 4.47 g m–2). Surface cover successfully controlled erosion losses following road construction, particularly on steep side slopes with high erosion potential.
Ground-based mechanized forest operations often lead to increased runoff and soil loss on unbound forest roads and machine operating trails, which in turn can impede the technical trafficability of machines and cause negative impacts on the environment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of three Best Management Practice (BMP) treatments used to control erosion occurring on machine operating trails. The treatments included water bar, water bar and hardwood brush (H-brush), and water bar and softwood brush (S-brush). For a more comprehensive assessment of both brush treatments, two levels of brush thickness were tested; 0.5 m and 1.0 m. Results indicate that the most effective BMP treatments were the water bar and softwood brush followed by the water bar and hardwood brush and finally the least effective was the water bar. The average runoff rates and soil loss from the machine operating trails with the water bar treatment (52.64 l per plot, 8.49 g m -2 ) were higher than runoff and soil loss at the trails protected with hardwood brush (23.75 l per plot, 4.5 g m -2 ), and the trails protected by the hardwood brush had higher runoff and soil loss compared to trails covered by softwood brush (15.83 l per plot, 2.98 g m -2 ). Furthermore, results of this study showed that regardless of the treatment, the amount of runoff and soil loss decreased consistently as the thickness of the brush mat increased. Overall, erosion control techniques similar to either H-brush or S-brush that provide direct soil coverage should be used for erosion control, and final selection should be based on costs, availability of material, or landowner objectives.
Effective skid-trail design requires a solid understanding of vehicle-soil interactions, yet virtually no data exist on the effects of harvest traffic on soils in the switchback curves common in mountainous terrain. We contrast for the first time the effect of skidding on dry bulk density, total porosity, macroporosity, and microporosity in the
straight segments of the skid trail and in various positions within switchbacks
of differing trail curvature (deflection angle) on different slope gradients.
Treatment plots with three replications included combinations of two classes of
curvature (narrow = high deflection angle, 60–70°; wide = low deflection angle,
110–130°) and two categories of slope gradient (gentle = ≤20%; steep = >20%).
The Cambisol soil was sampled in control and trafficked areas both before and
after three passes with a rubber-tired skidder. After only three passes,
significant effects were seen for dry soil bulk density (+), total porosity (–),
macroporosity (–), and microporosity (+), with steady trends from undisturbed
controls to straight segments to wide curves to narrow curves. Soil damage
increased gradually and consistently toward the apex of the curve, particularly
in narrow curves on gentle slopes. Our results establish that curvature and
switchback position are important factors affecting soil compaction in ground
skidding. The strong observed effects of even low harvest traffic volume on
soil physical properties in curves indicate that the degree of soil compaction
in skid trails may be underestimated in areas with numerous switchbacks, the
placement of which within a skid trail system may require careful consideration
on mountainous terrain.
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