Two elicitors, termed herein as the botrycin and the cinerein, have been isolated from the crude mycelial cell wall and from culture filtrate preparations, respectively, of a fungal necrotrophic pathogen Botrytis cinerea (Pers. et Fries). In grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Limberger) both elicitors caused the formation of necrotic lesions that mimic a typical hypersensitive response and apoptosis-related events including protoplast condensation and DNA laddering. Infiltration of minute amounts of the respective elicitors into leaves stimulated a rapid transcriptional activation of genes encoding enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway. Cultured grapevine cells respond differentially to respective elicitors. Significant differences were demonstrated in the ability of botrycin and cinerein to induce ion fluxes across the plasma membrane and the production of reactive oxygen species. As demonstrated by immunokinase assays, both botrycin and cinerein activated specific and distinct MAP kinases indicating that grapevine cells that perceived elicitors generated a cascade of signals acting at local, short, and long distances. Using a highly parallel antibody microarray profiling approach, the timing, dynamics, and regulation of the expression of 97 specific genes in elicitor-treated cells of grapevine was analysed.
Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis coupled to protein microarray analysis was used to examine for the first time the molecular mechanisms of grapevine habituation (
Vitis vinifera
L., cv. Limberger) at both the proteome and the interactome level. The examination of 2-D maps derived from control and habituated cell cultures revealed the presence of 55 protein spots displaying a differential expression pattern. Using computational prediction methods, fundamental differences were found between eukaryotic interactomes. It was confirmed that all the predicted protein family interactomes (the full set of protein family interactions within a proteome) of six species are scale-free networks, and that they share a small core network comprising 16 protein families related to indispensable cellular functions predominantly involved in pathogenesis, apoptosis and plant tumorigenesis. There is molecular evidence suggesting that grapevine cells which have become habituated for one or more essential factors originated from heritable alterations in the pattern of gene expression and that they can, therefore, be used as a model for the study of cell differentiation and/or neoplastic transformation.
Plant hormones operate in a very complex network where they regulate and control different vital mechanisms. They coordinate growth, development and defense via signaling involving different interactions of molecules. Activation of molecules responsible for regulation of plant immunity is mainly provided by salicylic and jasmonic acid signaling pathways. Similar to the signaling of these defense-associated plant hormones, auxin can also affect resistance to different pathogen groups and disease is manifested indirectly through the effects on growth. The various ways in which auxin regulate growth and plant development and might be closely connected to plant defense, are discussed in this review.
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