NTera 2/cl.D1 (NT2) cells, a human teratocarcinoma cell line, were manipulated following retinoic acid treatment to yield greater than 95% pure cultures of neuronal cells (NT2-N cells). The commitment of NT2-N cells to a stable neuronal phenotype is irreversible as judged by the lack of mitotic activity or phenotypic reversion over a period of 2 months in culture. Furthermore, NT2-N cells express a variety of neuronal markers including many neuronal cytoskeletal proteins, secretory markers, and surface markers. NT2-N cells resemble primary neuronal cultures from rodents morphologically and in density of process outgrowth and, like primary neurons, go on to elaborate processes that differentiate into axons and dendrites. This culture method yields sufficient highly differentiated postmitotic NT2-N cells for both biochemical and molecular biological studies. Indeed, when undifferentiated NT2 cells were stably transfected with a beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) expression plasmid, beta-gal expression was shown to be present in both undifferentiated NT2 and postmitotic NT2-N cells. Thus, the ability to transfect expression plasmids into undifferentiated NT2 cells will allow the introduction of normal and mutant gene products into cells that can then be induced to become stable, postmitotic human neurons. We conclude that NT2 cells and NT2-N cells represent a unique model system for studies of human neurons, and a novel vehicle for the expression of diverse gene products in terminally differentiated polarized neurons.

For more than a decade, researchers have refined criteria for the diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and at the same time have recognized that cognitive impairment and dementia occur commonly in patients with Parkinson disease (PD). This article addresses the relationship between DLB, PD, and PD with dementia (PDD). The authors agreed to endorse "Lewy body disorders" as the umbrella term for PD, PDD, and DLB, to promote the continued practical use of these three clinical terms, and to encourage efforts at drug discovery that target the mechanisms of neurodegeneration shared by these disorders of alpha-synuclein metabolism. We concluded that the differing temporal sequence of symptoms and clinical features of PDD and DLB justify distinguishing these disorders. However, a single Lewy body disorder model was deemed more useful for studying disease pathogenesis because abnormal neuronal alpha-synuclein inclusions are the defining pathologic process common to both PDD and DLB. There was consensus that improved understanding of the pathobiology of alpha-synuclein should be a major focus of efforts to develop new disease-modifying therapies for these disorders. The group agreed on four important priorities: 1) continued communication between experts who specialize in PDD or DLB; 2) initiation of prospective validation studies with autopsy confirmation of DLB and PDD; 3) development of practical biomarkers for alpha-synuclein pathologies; 4) accelerated efforts to find more effective treatments for these diseases.

We have identified a human cell line with a phenotype resembling committed CNS neuronal precursor cells. NTera 2/cl.D1 (NT2/D1) cells expressed nestin and vimentin, intermediate filament (IF) proteins expressed in neuroepithelial precursor cells, as well as MAP1b, a microtubule-associated protein (MAP) expressed in human neuroepithelium. NT2/D1 cells also expressed the cell adhesion molecules NCAM and N-cadherin which are thought to be important in cell-cell interactions within the neuroepithelium. These NT2/D1 cells also expressed small amounts of NF-L, alpha-internexin, NF-M, and MAP2c, indicating that they are committed to a neuronal fate. Previous studies have shown that, following RA treatment, a proportion of NT2/D1 cells terminally differentiate into neurons and that this occurs via an asymmetric stem cell mode of differentiation. In light of the identification of the neuroepithelial phenotype of NT2/D1 cells we decided to examine more closely the relationship of in vitro neurogenesis in NT2/D1 cells, during RA treatment to that of neurons in vivo. Three days after RA treatment, islands of NT2/D1 cells showed increased expression of neurofilament proteins and increased phosphorylation of NF-M. By 10-14 days, these cells began to resemble neurons morphologically, i.e., with rounded cell bodies and processes. These neuronal cells were clustered into clumps which rested on top of a layer of progenitor cells. In this upper layer, the neurons began to express MAP2b and tau and extinguished their expression of nestin. Recently, we developed a method for obtaining pure cultures of neurons from RA treated NT2/D1 cells. The phenotype of these postmitotic neurons is clearly dissociated from that of the untreated NT2/D1 cells. Given the data obtained in this study and the characterization of the neurons derived from NT2/D1 cells, we propose that NT2/D1 cells are a committed human neuronal precursor cell line which retains some stem cell characteristics and is capable only of terminal differentiation into neurons.

A new panel of greater than 300 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) was prepared to the high, middle, and low Mr rat neurofilament (NF) subunits (NF-H, NF-M and NF-L, respectively). NF proteins were purified both from native, i.e., phosphorylated rat NFs and from enzymatically dephosphorylated rat NFs. The resulting mAbs were used to biochemically and immunochemically distinguish and characterize distinct and differentially phosphorylated isoforms of NF subunits. By immunoblot, all mAbs specific for NF-L and some mAbs specific for NF-M detected their specific NF subunit regardless of whether or not the NFs had been treated with alkaline phosphatase, and such antibodies were termed "phosphate-independent" or P[ind] mAbs. The other mAbs were specific for NF-M, NF-H, or for both NF-M and NF-H, and they recognized epitopes in the COOH termini of these subunits. Significantly, the latter mAbs could discriminate different isoforms of NF-M and NF-H, depending on the phosphorylation state of each variant. Such mAbs were assigned to one of 4 distinct categories on the basis of their performance in immunoblots of progressively dephosphorylated rat NF samples and by immunohistochemistry of various adult rat nervous tissues: (1) P[-] mAbs preferentially stained neuronal perikarya and dendrites, and they recognized only extensively dephosphorylated (and nonphosphorylated) NF-H; (2) P[+] mAbs stained axons more strongly than perikarya, and primarily blotted phosphorylated, but not nonphosphorylated, forms of NF-H and NF-M; (3) P[++] mAbs stained axons almost to the exclusion of perikarya, and in blots recognized only the extensively phosphorylated forms of NF-H and NF-M (i.e., subunits subjected to limited enzymatic dephosphorylation); (4) P[ ] mAbs also predominantly stained axons, but the briefest alkaline phosphatase treatment abolished the NF-M and NF-H immunobands produced by these mAbs. Two-dimensional gel analysis and immunoblotting of total proteins from adult rat dorsal root ganglion verified mAb specificity in situ, and showed that differentially phosphorylated isoforms of NF-M and NF-H occur in vivo. This provided additional evidence that mAbs can detect all 4 phosphorylation-dependent endogenous isoelectric variants of NF-H and NF-M.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to rat neurofilament (NF) proteins NF-L, NF-M, and NF-H were used to examine the developmental programs of NF expression in rat embryos. The ability of these mAbs to recognize differentially phosphorylated states of NF-M and NF-H (Lee et al., 1987, the preceding paper) was exploited in order to examine the temporal and spatial patterns of NF phosphorylation during early neuronal development in vivo. NF proteins were first detected on the twelfth day postfertilization (E12) using NF-L- or NF-M-specific mAbs. By E13, the coexpression of NF-L and NF-M was widespread, reflecting dramatic increases of immunoreactivity to both subunits. Partial phosphorylation, denoted P[+], of NF-M was already present in perikarya and neurites of E12 neurons. Extensively phosphorylated, or P[+++], isoforms of NF-M appeared in E13 axons, thereby establishing a proximodistal gradient of NF phosphorylation during the earliest phase of NF expression. Immunoblots of tissue homogenates revealed that most NF-M of E13 embryos exists in a partially phosphorylated, or P[+], isoform. Unequivocal staining for NF-H first appeared at E15, a time at which NF-L and NF-M had already attained their adult patterns of immunocytochemical staining. Levels of NF-H were extremely low at E15 but could be detected in all of its differentially phosphorylated states, i.e., nonphosphorylated P[-], partly P[+], and highly P[+++] phosphorylated isoforms. P[+++] isoforms of NF-H were restricted to the distal portions of E15 axons, although staining of more proximal axons, like those in adult, was noted by E17. Immunoblots of E17 embryos revealed most NF-H as P[-] and P[+] isoforms. Quantities of immunoreactive NF-H increased very slowly and remained well below those of NF-M and NF-L for several weeks beyond birth. These results show that sequential forms of NFs are expressed by developing and maturing neurons throughout the nervous system. An "immature" form of NFs, composed of NF-M and NF-L, appears to function in establishing the neuronal phenotype and in initiating and maintaining neurite outgrowth. Addition of NF-H confers a "mature" state to the NF. This delayed expression of NF-H is a slow and graduated process that coincides in time with the stabilization of neuronal circuitries and may be important in modulating axonal events, such as the slowing of cytoskeletal transport and the growth of axonal caliber.

We report for the first time that small molecule-based radiodiodinated ligands, showing selective binding to Aβ aggregates, cross the intact blood−brain barrier by simple diffusion. Four novel ligands showing preferential labeling of amyloid aggregates of Aβ(1−40) and Aβ(1−42) peptides, commonly associated with plaques in the brain of people with Alzheimer's disease (AD), were developed. Two 125I-labeled styrylbenzenes, (E,E)-1-iodo-2,5-bis(3-hydroxycarbonyl-4-hydroxy)styrylbenzene, 12 (ISB), and (E,E)-1-iodo-2,5-bis(3-hydroxycarbonyl-4-methoxy)styrylbenzene, 13 (IMSB), and two 125I-labeled thioflavins, 2-[4‘-(dimethylamino)phenyl]-6-iodobenzothiazole, 18a (TZDM), and 2-[4‘-(4‘ ‘-methylpiperazin-1-yl)phenyl]-6-iodobenzothiazole, 18b (TZPI), were prepared at a high specific activity (2200 Ci/mmol). In vitro binding studies of these ligands showed excellent binding affinities with K d values of 0.08, 0.13, 0.06, and 0.13 nM for aggregates of Aβ(1−40) and 0.15, 0.73, 0.14, and 0.15 nM for aggregates of Aβ(1−42), respectively. Interestingly, under a competitive-binding assaying condition, different binding sites on Aβ(1−40) and Aβ(1−42) aggregates, which are mutually exclusive, were observed for styrylbenzenes and thioflavins. Autoradiography studies of postmortem brain sections of a patient with Down's syndrome known to contain primarily Aβ(1−42) aggregates in the brain showed that both [125I]18a and [125I]18b labeled these brain sections, but [125I]13, selective for Aβ(1−40) aggregates, exhibited very low labeling of the comparable brain section. Biodistribution studies in normal mice after an iv injection showed that [125I]18a and [125I]18b exhibited excellent brain uptake and retention, the levels of which were much higher than those of [125I]12 and [125I]13. These findings strongly suggest that the new radioiodinated ligands, [125I]12 (ISB), [125I]13 (IMSB), [125I]18a (TZDM), and [125I]18b (TZPI), may be useful as biomarkers for studying Aβ(1−40) as well as Aβ(1−42) aggregates of amyloidogenesis in AD patients.

Coding region and intronic mutations in the tau gene cause frontotemporal dementia and parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17. Some of these mutations lead to an overproduction of tau isoforms with four microtubule-binding repeats. Here we have expressed the longest four-repeat human brain tau isoform in transgenic mice under the control of the murine Thy1 promoter. Transgenic mice aged 3 weeks to 25 months overexpressed human tau protein in nerve cells of brain and spinal cord. Numerous abnormal, tau-immunoreactive nerve cell bodies and dendrites were seen. In addition, large numbers of pathologically enlarged axons containing neurofilament- and tau-immunoreactive spheroids were present, especially in spinal cord. Signs of Wallerian degeneration and neurogenic muscle atrophy were observed. When motor function was tested, transgenic mice showed signs of muscle weakness. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that overexpression of human four-repeat tau leads to a central and peripheral axonopathy that results in nerve cell dysfunction and amyotrophy.

Mutations in the beta-synuclein gene may predispose to DLB.