Entrepreneurial intentions determine to a large extent the entrepreneurial behavior; therefore, the study of those intentions and the factors that influence them constitute a valid research area. The purpose of this regional comparative study was to design a new causal model of the formation of the entrepreneurial intention among young adults in Spain and Poland. Using the Structural Equation Modeling (PLS) methodology, the results show that subjective variables (beliefs, social norms, values) initiate the chain of effects that influence the action variables (motivation, self-efficacy, intention). Attitude is the nexus variable between both groups of variables. It is verified that there are no significant differences in the responses to the items or in the causal relationships of the model between both countries. This confirms the relevance of a homogenizing generational approach at a global level that allows the application of policies to promote the entrepreneurial intention for the entire segment. The proposed model takes into account and complements the previous designs, and is practical because it can be used at different levels of the education sector and by institutions promoting entrepreneurship and sustainability.

Purpose: The article analyses the influence of personal and contextual variables on entrepreneurial intentions of students from Poland. The article presents a structural model that has been developed from a set of student perceptions. Chosen variables included in the model allows explaining and managing the formation of the intention in the context of higher education. This study provides answers to the following questions: What role and which personal variables do play importance in the formation of entrepreneurship intention in the case of young people? Which and how contextual variables are important to enhance personal variables for entrepreneurial intentions? Methodology: The research was carried out by using critical literature analysis as well as statistical research. In carrying out this work, a causal quantitative methodology (structural equation modeling) was applied using the Amos program. Factor analysis has also been used in a descriptive methodological context. The empirical research was conducted in first quarter of 2020. Findings: Research conducted on a sample of over 330 Polish students has shown that not all personal factors are statistically significant in assessing the entrepreneurial intentions of young people. As the results show, subjective norms do not play a significant role in the intention to take up self-employment. External (contextual) factors related to the broadly understood environment supporting the future entrepreneur play an important role, but much less clear than the factors at the individual level and generally indirectly influence entrepreneurial intentions, strengthening the entrepreneur's personal factors. Practical Implications: The results suppose a theoretical and practical contribution to the promotion of entrepreneur intentions of university students inside and outside the educational context. Entrepreneurship promotion programmes run by universities must focus on developing the attitude of the potential entrepreneurs, conveying the message that, despite all the obstacles that exist when launching a business, the entrepreneurship route can be an interesting alternative. Originality/Value: In the study, the personal and contextual factors influencing the entrepreneurial intentions of students were taken into account. The causal model generated on a sample of 332 Polish respondents shows the importance of individual factors on entrepreneurial intentions and the impact of contextual constructs on personal factors. Contextual variables (i.e. education, public policy, supporting entrepreneurial environments) were found to have a positive impact on personal variables as well as entrepreneurial intentions.

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This article studies the variables of entrepreneurship at the regional (countries) level proposed by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) in its periodic global reports. This response to the suggestions and concerns of various authors is related to the need to analyze the theoretical foundation of the variables used by GEM. The validity and reliability of GEM data for the scientific study of entrepreneurship are also analyzed. Finally, the potential of GEM data to manage entrepreneurship variables at the country level is studied. Data from the GEM global report and the fifty countries for which data are available on all variables are used in the study. The methodology used is the Rasch mathematical model, a valuable alternative to the Classical Theory of the Test. The results confirm the theoretical validity of GEM data, its validity and reliability for the development of scientific studies, and its potential for managing entrepreneurship variables at the country level. Both the methodology used and the conclusions obtained constitute novel contributions to this field.

Research background: The concept of the university entrepreneurship ecosystem is nowadays a part of the current trends in researching the determinants of support for commercialization of research results. The subject is relatively new, because the first papers in this topic are dated to 2009, and in fact it has only been in the last 3 years that the interest of researchers in this subject has increased. Purpose of the article: The purpose of this study is to analyze the state of research on the issue of the university ecosystem of academic entrepreneurship and to identify the main research trends related to this topic. Methods: The article was based on a systematic review of the literature (SLR), which included the selection of basic literature and selection of publications, mayor researchers, bibliometric analysis and content analysis. Findings & Value added: The results of the conducted research indicate that the study of the university ecosystem of academic entrepreneurship is still a new issue, poorly recognized in literature, without a solid methodological foundation and which may constitute a current and interesting research area. Our paper adds to existing research in four important ways. We provide a holistic review of university entrepreneurial ecosystem. We also identify the challenges identified in this area and suggest how they may be developed.  Third, our results are also policy-relevant. For policy-makers, it is important to know whether academic engagement is driven by mechanisms existing in academic ecosystem or affected by factors that may not be activated by it.

Research background: The article presents the problem of youth unemployment from the perspective of employers in Poland exemplified by the research results conducted in Podlaskie province. The unemployment rate of young people in Poland in the age range 15-29, reached 14.2% in 2015. For comparison, at that time the average for the EU was higher by almost two percentage points, and the decline compared to the year 2013 was lower than in Poland. It turns out that higher education in Poland has lost its importance in the process of hiring staff. Employers are increasingly less likely to look at the educational background of candidates,  as they focus more on their experience and specific skills. Purpose of the article: The purpose of this article is to present the results of re-search regarding the diagnosis of the situation of young people on the labour market in Poland from the perspective of employers. In particular, there were competency gaps and other reasons for not recruiting young people which have been identified. Methods: Two types of research were carried out with employers from Podlaskie province: quantitative, using CATI/CAWI and qualitative, using the technique of IDI. Quantitative research was carried out on a sample of 346 respondents. A qualitative study was carried out among 16 companies registered in Podlaskie province. Findings & Value added: Among the reasons for not employing young people which were most often mentioned by the entrepreneurs in quantitative research there were financial reasons. During the interviews, employers  indicated the reasons for not employing young people such as "lack of appropriate qualifications," "specific skills" or simply "practical preparation for work." Employers were asked about the competence gaps of young people, and they pointed out that they lack experience, initiative and entrepreneurship, as well as learning skills.

This article analyses the influence of personal variables on entrepreneurial intentions of students from Poland and Spain. The article presents an integrated structural model that has been developed from a set of student perceptions from both countries. A small number of variables included in the model allows explaining and managing the formation of the intention in the context of higher education. This study provides answers to the following questions: What role do personal variables play as motivation in the formation of entrepreneurship in the case of young people? Is the motivation stronger than self-efficacy? What are the differences in the perceptions and ratings of students in Poland and Spain? How can these variables be enhanced? This work used a causal quantitative methodology based on structural equations (PLS) and the Smart PLS-3.0 program. The PLS model was chosen for its advantages in the study of human behaviour and its optimal predictive potential, and because it allows the use of reflective indicators. In the causal model generated with a sample of 721 respondents from Poland and Spain, it was found that personal values initiated the chain of effects that influenced the attitude and, through it, successively resulted in motivation, self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. Therefore, the subjective variables (values and attitudes) have a positive and significant influence on the action variables (motivation and self-efficacy), and these affect entrepreneurial intentions. The absence of significant regional differences in the responses to the items and the causal relationships of the model suggests the possibility of developing integrated and homogeneous programmes for the entire segment, thereby achieving synergies. The results suppose a theoretical and practical contribution to the promotion of entrepreneur intentions of university students inside and outside the educational context, suggesting a possible effect of personal variables on entrepreneurial intentions.

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