Ultrahigh-throughput screening, in which members of enzyme libraries compartmentalized in water-in-oil emulsion droplets are assayed, has emerged as a powerful format for directed evolution and functional metagenomics but is currently limited to fluorescence readouts. Here we describe a highly efficient microfluidic absorbance-activated droplet sorter (AADS) that extends the range of assays amenable to this approach. Using this module, microdroplets can be sorted based on absorbance readout at rates of up to 300 droplets per second (i.e., >1 million droplets per hour). To validate this device, we implemented a miniaturized coupled assay for NAD+-dependent amino acid dehydrogenases. The detection limit (10 μM in a coupled assay producing a formazan dye) enables accurate kinetic readouts sensitive enough to detect a minimum of 1,300 turnovers per enzyme molecule, expressed in a single cell, and released by lysis within a droplet. Sorting experiments showed that the AADS successfully enriched active variants up to 2,800-fold from an overwhelming majority of inactive ones at ∼100 Hz. To demonstrate the utility of this module for protein engineering, two rounds of directed evolution were performed to improve the activity of phenylalanine dehydrogenase toward its native substrate. Fourteen hits showed increased activity (improved >4.5-fold in lysate; kcat increased >2.7-fold), soluble protein expression levels (up 60%), and thermostability (Tm, 12 °C higher). The AADS module makes the most widely used optical detection format amenable to screens of unprecedented size, paving the way for the implementation of chromogenic assays in droplet microfluidics workflows.

Nature may use charge burial to reduce protein stability; not all buried charges are fully stabilized by a prearranged protein environment. Consistent with this view, thermophilic proteins often have less buried charge. Modifying the amount of buried charge at carefully chosen sites may thus provide a general route for changing the thermophilicity or psychrophilicity of proteins.

Legionella pneumophila is an amoeba-resistant opportunistic pathogen that performs cell-cell communication through the signalling molecule 3-hydroxypentadecane-4-one (LAI-1, Legionella autoinducer-1). The lqs (Legionella quorum sensing) gene cluster encodes the LAI-1 autoinducer synthase LqsA, the cognate sensor kinase LqsS and the response regulator LqsR. Here we show that the Lqs system includes an 'orphan' homologue of LqsS termed LqsT. Compared with wild-type L. pneumophila, strains lacking lqsT or both lqsS and lqsT show increased salt resistance, greatly enhanced natural competence for DNA acquisition and impaired uptake by phagocytes. Sensitive novel single round growth assays and competition experiments using Acanthamoeba castellanii revealed that ΔlqsT and ΔlqsS-ΔlqsT, as well as ΔlqsA and other lqs mutant strains are impaired for intracellular growth and cannot compete against wild-type bacteria upon co-infection. In contrast to the ΔlqsS strain, ΔlqsT does not produce extracellular filaments. The phenotypes of the ΔlqsS-ΔlqsT strain are partially complemented by either lqsT or lqsS, but are not reversed by overexpression of lqsA, suggesting that LqsT and LqsS are the sole LAI-1-responsive sensor kinases in L. pneumophila. In agreement with the different phenotypes of the ΔlqsT and ΔlqsS strains, lqsT and lqsS are differentially expressed in the post-exponential growth phase, and transcriptome studies indicated that 90% of the genes, which are downregulated in absence of lqsT, are upregulated in absence of lqsS. Reciprocally regulated genes encode components of a 133 kb genomic 'fitness island' or translocated effector proteins implicated in virulence. Together, these results reveal a unique organization of the L. pneumophila Lqs system comprising two partially antagonistic LAI-1-responsive sensor kinases, LqsT and LqsS, which regulate distinct pools of genes implicated in pathogen-host cell interactions, competence, expression of a genomic island or production of extracellular filaments.

The direct asymmetric reductive amination of ketones using ammonia as the sole amino donor is a growing field of research in both chemocatalysis and biocatalysis. Recent research has focused on the enzyme engineering of amino acid dehydrogenases (to obtain amine dehydrogenases), and this technology promises to be a potentially exploitable route for chiral amine synthesis. However, the use of these enzymes in industrial biocatalysis has not yet been demonstrated with substrate loadings above 80 mM, because of the enzymes’ generally low turnover numbers (k cat < 0.1 s–1) and variable stability under reaction conditions. In this work, a newly engineered amine dehydrogenase from a phenylalanine dehydrogenase (PheDH) from Caldalkalibacillus thermarum was recruited and compared against an existing amine dehydrogenase (AmDH) from Bacillus badius for both kinetic and thermostability parameters, with the former exhibiting an increased thermostability (melting temperature, T m) of 83.5 °C, compared to 56.5 °C for the latter. The recruited enzyme was further used in the reductive amination of up to 400 mM of phenoxy-2-propanone (c = 96%, ee (R) < 99%) in a biphasic reaction system utilizing a lyophilized whole-cell preparation. Finally, we performed computational docking simulations to rationalize the generally lower turnover numbers of AmDHs, compared to their PheDH counterparts.

Quorum sensing regulates cell density-dependent phenotypes and involves the synthesis, excretion and detection of so-called autoinducers. Vibrio harveyi strain ATCC BAA-1116 (recently reclassified as Vibrio campbellii), one of the best-characterized model organisms for the study of quorum sensing, produces and responds to three autoinducers. HAI-1, AI-2 and CAI-1 are recognized by different receptors, but all information is channeled into the same signaling cascade, which controls a specific set of genes. Here we examine temporal variations of availability and concentration of the three autoinducers in V. harveyi, and monitor the phenotypes they regulate, from the early exponential to the stationary growth phase in liquid culture. Specifically, the exponential growth phase is characterized by an increase in AI-2 and the induction of bioluminescence, while HAI-1 and CAI-1 are undetectable prior to the late exponential growth phase. CAI-1 activity reaches its maximum upon entry into stationary phase, while molar concentrations of AI-2 and HAI-1 become approximately equal. Similarly, autoinducer-dependent exoproteolytic activity increases at the transition into stationary phase. These findings are reflected in temporal alterations in expression of the luxR gene that encodes the master regulator LuxR, and of four autoinducer-regulated genes during growth. Moreover, in vitro phosphorylation assays reveal a tight correlation between the HAI-1/AI-2 ratio as input and levels of receptor-mediated phosphorylation of LuxU as output. Our study supports a model in which the combinations of autoinducers available, rather than cell density per se, determine the timing of various processes in V. harveyi populations.

SummaryThe causative agent of Legionnaires' disease, Legionella pneumophila, employs the autoinducer compound LAI-1 (3-hydroxypentadecane-4-one) for cell-cell communication. LAI-1 is produced and detected by the Lqs (Legionella quorum sensing) system, comprising the autoinducer synthase LqsA, the sensor kinases LqsS and LqsT, as well as the response regulator LqsR. Lqs-regulated processes include pathogen-host interactions, production of extracellular filaments and natural competence for DNA uptake. Here we show that synthetic LAI-1 promotes the motility of L. pneumophila by signalling through LqsS/LqsT and LqsR. Upon addition of LAI-1, autophosphorylation of LqsS/LqsT by [γ-

BackgroundVibrio harveyi and closely related species are important pathogens in aquaculture. A complex quorum sensing cascade involving three autoinducers controls bioluminescence and several genes encoding virulence factors. Single cell analysis of a V. harveyi population has already indicated intercellular heterogeneity in the production of bioluminescence. This study was undertaken to analyze the expression of various autoinducer-dependent genes in individual cells.ResultsHere we used reporter strains bearing promoter::gfp fusions to monitor the induction/repression of three autoinducer-regulated genes in wild type conjugates at the single cell level. Two genes involved in pathogenesis - vhp and vscP, which code for an exoprotease and a component of the type III secretion system, respectively, and luxC (the first gene in the lux operon) were chosen for analysis. The lux operon and the exoprotease gene are induced, while vscP is repressed at high cell density. As controls luxS and recA, whose expression is not dependent on autoinducers, were examined. The responses of the promoter::gfp fusions in individual cells from the same culture ranged from no to high induction. Importantly, simultaneous analysis of two autoinducer induced phenotypes, bioluminescence (light detection) and exoproteolytic activity (fluorescence of a promoter::gfp fusion), in single cells provided evidence for functional heterogeneity within a V. harveyi population.ConclusionsAutoinducers are not only an indicator for cell density, but play a pivotal role in the coordination of physiological activities within the population.

Successful screening of enzyme libraries in functional metagenomics and directed evolution becomes more likely after uniform cell growth in droplets amplifies genotype and phenotype.