Artemisinins are extracted from sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua) and are the most potent antimalarials available, rapidly killing all asexual stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Artemisinins are sesquiterpene lactones widely used to treat multidrug-resistant malaria, a disease that annually claims 1 million lives. Despite extensive clinical and laboratory experience their molecular target is not yet identified. Activated artemisinins form adducts with a variety of biological macromolecules, including haem, translationally controlled tumour protein (TCTP) and other higher-molecular-weight proteins. Here we show that artemisinins, but not quinine or chloroquine, inhibit the SERCA orthologue (PfATP6) of Plasmodium falciparum in Xenopus oocytes with similar potency to thapsigargin (another sesquiterpene lactone and highly specific SERCA inhibitor). As predicted, thapsigargin also antagonizes the parasiticidal activity of artemisinin. Desoxyartemisinin lacks an endoperoxide bridge and is ineffective both as an inhibitor of PfATP6 and as an antimalarial. Chelation of iron by desferrioxamine abrogates the antiparasitic activity of artemisinins and correspondingly attenuates inhibition of PfATP6. Imaging of parasites with BODIPY-thapsigargin labels the cytosolic compartment and is competed by artemisinin. Fluorescent artemisinin labels parasites similarly and irreversibly in an Fe2+-dependent manner. These data provide compelling evidence that artemisinins act by inhibiting PfATP6 outside the food vacuole after activation by iron.

Artemisinins are the most important class of antimalarial drugs. They specifically inhibit PfATP6, a SERCA-type ATPase of Plasmodium falciparum. Here we show that a single amino acid in transmembrane segment 3 of SERCAs can determine susceptibility to artemisinin. An L263E replacement of a malarial by a mammalian residue abolishes inhibition by artemisinins. Introducing residues found in other Plasmodium spp. also modulates artemisinin sensitivity, suggesting that artemisinins interact with the thapsigargin-binding cleft of susceptible SERCAs.

Chemotherapy of malaria parasites is limited by established drug resistance and lack of novel targets. Intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum are wholly dependent on host glucose for energy. Glucose uptake is mediated by a parasite-encoded facilitative hexose transporter (PfHT). We report that O-3 hexose derivatives inhibit uptake of glucose and fructose by PfHT when expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Selectivity of these derivatives for PfHT is confirmed by lack of inhibition of hexose transport by the major mammalian glucose and fructose transporters (Gluts) 1 and 5. A long chain O-3 hexose derivative is the most effective inhibitor of PfHT and also kills P. falciparum when it is cultured in medium containing either glucose or fructose as a carbon source. To extend our observations to the second most important human malarial pathogen, we have cloned and expressed the Plasmodium vivax orthologue of PfHT, and demonstrate inhibition of glucose uptake by the long chain O-3 hexose derivative. Furthermore, multiplication of Plasmodium berghei in a mouse model is significantly reduced by the O-3 derivative. Our robust expression system conclusively validates PfHT as a novel drug target and is an important step in the development of novel antimalarials directed against membrane transport proteins.Xenopus oocyte ͉ malaria ͉ antimalarial ͉ glucose analogues ͉ transport

We report the characterization of an unusual adenylyl cyclase gene from Plasmodium falciparum, here designated PfAC␣. The level of mRNA expression is maximum during development of gametocytes (the sexual blood stage of the parasite life cycle). The gene is highly interrupted by 22 introns, and reverse transcriptase-PCR analysis revealed that there are multiple mRNA splice variants. One intron has three alternative 3-splice sites that confer the potential to encode distinct forms of the enzyme using alternative start codons. Deduced amino acid sequences predict membrane-spanning regions, the number of which can vary between two and six depending on the splice variant. Expression of a synthetic form of two of these variants in Xenopus oocytes and in Dictyostelium adenylyl cyclase-deficient mutants, confirms that PfAC␣ is a functional adenylyl cyclase. These results identify a novel mechanism in P. falciparum for the generation of multiple isoforms of a key, membranebound signaling molecule from a single genomic copy. Comparisons of the catalytic domains of PfAC␣ and a second putative P. falciparum adenylyl cyclase (PfAC␤) with those from other species reveal an unexpected similarity with adenylyl cyclases from certain prokaryotes including the cyanobacteria (blue green algae). In addition, the presence of an unusual active site substitution in a position that determines substrate specificity, also characteristic of these prokaryotic forms of the enzyme, further suggests a plastid origin for the Plasmodium cyclases.

1 We have expressed the GABA transporter (GAT1) of mouse brain in Xenopus oocytes and have investigated the e ects of four antiepileptic drugs, tiagabine (TGB), vigabatrin (VGB), gabapentin (GBP) and valproate (VAL), on GAT1 transporter function by measurements of 3 H-labelled GABA uptake and GAT1-mediated currents. 2 Not only TGB, a well-known inhibitor of GAT1-mediated transport, but also the other drugs e ciently inhibit the uptake of [ 3 H]-GABA by GAT1. Inhibition at 50% is obtained for VGB, TGB, GBP, and VAL at concentrations of about 1 nM, 1 mM, 50 mM and 100 mM, respectively. 3 However, GAT1-mediated steady-state and transient currents are nearly una ected by VGB, GBP, and VAL at even ®ve times higher concentrations. Only TGB blocks the uptake and steadystate and transient currents at micromolar concentrations. 4 VGB exhibits a complex interaction with GAT1; at concentrations about 1 nM, the inhibition of uptake is released, but at millimolar concentrations the uptake is inhibited again, and also the GAT1-mediated current is ®nally inhibited at these concentrations with a K I value of 0.5 mM. The concentration dependency of inhibition of uptake can be explained by two interaction sites with di erent a nities, a blocking site and a transport site. 5 The di erences in e ects of VAL, GBP, and VGB on uptake and currents can be attributed to the fact that GAT1 has the capability to operate in an electrogenic mode without uptake of GABA. We suggest that inhibition occurs only when GAT1 operates in the GABA-uptake mode. 6 The inhibition of GABA uptake by these four drugs will result in an elevation of the GABA concentration in the synaptic cleft, which will enhance synaptic inhibition and thereby contribute to their antiepileptic e ects.

The GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) transporter (GAT1) belongs to a superfamily of secondary active uptake systems for neurotransmitters that depend on the electrochemical gradients for Na+ and Cl-. In the GAT1, two Na+ ions and one Cl- ion are co-transported with one GABA molecule. Steady-state transport activity and transient charge movements during partial reactions of the transport cycle of the GAT1 of mouse brain expressed in Xenopus oocytes were investigated by two-electrode voltage clamp. Functional expression was demonstrated by Na+-dependent [3H]GABA uptake. Effects of mutation of two out of three N-glycosylation sites located in the extracellular loop between transmembrane domains 3 and 4 (Asn176, Asn181, Asn184) were analysed. Simultaneous substitution of two Asn by Asp leaves the transport system intact but leads to a reduction in turnover and complex changes in the interaction of external Na+ with the transport protein. If Asn176 is mutated to Asp and simultaneously Asn181 to Gly, no transport and no charge movements can be detected. In conclusion, mutations of the glycosylation sites result in altered transport, and the local conformation at Asn181 is critical for expression of transport activity.

Tetraethylammonium (TEA+) is an effective inhibitor of a variety of K+ channels, and has been widely used to reduce K+-sensitive background conductances in electrophysiological investigations of the Na+,K+-ATPase. Here we demonstrate by combination of two-electrode voltage clamp (TEVC) and giant patch clamp of Xenopus oocytes, and measurements of the activity of purified ATPase of pig kidney that TEA+ directly inhibits the Na+,K+-ATPase from the outside. The KI value in TEVC experiments at 0 mV is about 10 mM increasing with more negative potentials. A similar voltage-dependent inhibition by TEA+ was observed in the excised membrane patches except that the apparent KI value at 0 mV is about 100 mM, a value nearly identical to that found for inhibition of purified kidney ATPase. The voltage-dependent inhibition can be described by an effective valency of 0.39 and is attributed to an interference with the voltage-dependent binding of K+ at an external access channel. The apparent dielectric length of the access channel for K+ is not affected by TEA+.

The first merogony of Eimeria bovis takes place in lymphatic endothelial cells of the ileum, resulting in the formation of macromeronts up to 250 microm. In this study, we investigated the host cell cytoskeleton (actin filaments, microtubules, spectrin, vimentin intermediate filaments) associated with parasitic development in vitro by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) using primary bovine umbilical vein endothelial cells (BUVEC) and bovine spleen lymphatic endothelial cells (BSLEC) as host cells. No prominent changes in the host cell cytoskeleton were detected 1-3 days after E. bovis sporozoite invasion. With ongoing meront maturation a significant increase in microtubules and actin filaments close to the parasitophorous vacuole (PV) was found. Mature macromeronts within the PV were completely enclosed by these cytoskeletal elements. Our findings suggest, that in order to guarantee the survival of the host cell on the enlargement of macromeronts, E. bovis needs not only to augment but also to rearrange its cytoskeletal system.